1. How do we study these archaeologically?
Civilizations
Characteristics
Origin Theories
How do we study these archaeologically?

2. V. Gordon Childe: Characteristics of complex societies
These include:
urban centers between 7-20,000 people
specialized division of labor
ruling class of religious, civil and military leaders
food surplus
monumental architecture
writing system
developments of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy
art and long-distance trade
institutionalized form of political organization-the state

3. Do all complex societies have these characteristics?
Do they have to have all the characteristics to be termed complex?
Variations might be Agricultural States which had some of these characteristics but was primarily composed of inequality based on control of food surplus.

4. V. Gordon Childe “Urban Revolution”
Suggested that civilization resulted from increasing specialization which was made possible by technological innovations which allowed for increased production and the accumulation of surplus
In the fourth millennium, the development of effective irrigation agriculture combined with fishing and animal husbandry to afford the surplus necessary to support a growing number of specialists
accumulation of surplus was assisted by water transportation, pack animals, and newly invented wheeled vehicles
use of irrigation restricted the areas that could be cultivated effectively to those near water courses and canals, thus causing and aggregation of the population
proposes ten criteria to distinguish the earliest cities from any older or contemporary village

5. V. Gordon Childe Dense populations
first cities were more extensive and densely populated
population ranged from 7,000 to 20,000
Full-time specialization and division of labor
cities accomodated peasants, but also classes of specialists: craftsmen, transport workers, merchants, officials, and priests
these were supported by agricultural surplus
they did not receive their support directly from individual peasants
Taxation and concentration of capital
each primary producer paid over his surplus as a tithe or tax to an imaginary deity or divine king, who then concentrated the surplus
this capital concentration was necessary to sponsor specialist activities

6. V. Gordon Childe Social classes Religion and state organization
all those not engaged in food production were supported by surplus accumulated in the temple
some officials absorbed a major share of this surplus, and formed a "ruling class"
these ruling classes conferred benefits on their subjects by providing planning and organization
Religion and state organization
cities had "organic solidarity" based on the interdependence of agricultural producers, craftsmen, traders, priests, and members of the ruling class
organization was based on residence rather than kinship
craftsman could belong politically as well as economically
there was a conflict between the subsistence farmers and the tiny ruling class
this solidarity had to be maintained by ideological devices
the pre-eminence of the temple or shrine was used to hold society together, and justify the social order

7. V. Gordon Childe Monumental architecture Writing
monumental buildings symbolize the concentration of social surplus
these included temples and ziggurats
an important part of each temple complex was a granary or storage facility
in Sumer, social surplus was effectively concentrated in the hands of a god and stored in his granary
Writing
management of surplus and the administration of revenues compelled societies to invent systems of recording and exact, practical sciences
organization of temple required intelligible system of recording information
Exact and predictive sciences
the invention of writing enabled the leisured class to develop the exact and predictive sciences of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy
calendars allowed for regulation of agricultural economy
Fine arts
other specialists, supported by social surplus, developed artistic expression in conceptualized and sophisticated styles
Trade in necessary raw materials
social surplus was also used to pay for the importation of raw materials necessary for industry which were not available locally
cities became dependent on vital materials, such as metal or obsidian
regular trade becomes an important activity of the first cities

8. Julian Steward-Ecology
Suggested that at the core of the urban transformation was a changing, functionally interrelated group of social institutions
core was characterized by the structural relationships of interdependent institutions
each society derives its distinctive set of social systems from its institutional core
framework was to investigate each society in terms of its "level of sociopolitical complexity"
Rise of civilization viewed as a series of successive, major organizational levels
Hunting and gathering
Incipient agriculture
Formative
Regional florescence
Initial Conquest
Dark Ages
Cyclical conquests
Suggested that irrigation works and water distribution required the growth of a bureauocracy
rise of ruling class, leisure time, and population
population pressure led to competition and warfare
cultural collapse and "dark ages"
militaristic phase led to emergence of stonger states

9. Karl Wittfogel-Irrigation
Pointed out (as Steward did) that early civilizations appeared in regions where large-scale irrigation agriculture was practiced
Attempted to explain the major political systems of the world through control of irrigation agriculture in "Oriental Despotism" (1957)
termed societies that relied on large-scale irrigation "hydraulic societies"
Suggests that large-scale irrigation required centralized coordination and direction
water was a natural resource, and became a crucial variable because it could be manipulated and agglomerated in bulk
water management was especially important in places where rainfall was insufficient but water was available nearby, such as in semiarid river valleys
Irrigation itself had an organizing effect
scheduling of water use
maintenance of canals
defense of canals from hostile neighbors
while it can be carried on by small groups on an informal basis, it is more efficient and leads to greater growth if there is central management
in return, the person who manages the water has tremendous power over the farmers
if one source of power is so much more important than all others, a monopoly develops within a society
single-centered government arises from "oriental despotism"
Contrasts this kind of development with what happens in more temperate climates in which rainfall agriculture prevails
alternate bases of power can arise to give a more balanced or multi-centered government

10. Major Criticisms
There are several modern communities in Mesopotamia where small-scale cooperative irrigation works without centralized external control are sufficient for an adequate agricultural livelihood
available archaeological and historical data imply that large-scale irrigation works were not prevalent in Mesopotamia until long after the rise of the state
hydraulic society might be viewed as a result of state formation rather than as a cause
It is unlikely that Wittfogel intended to imply that large-scale irrigation works preceded centralized government
institutions of central government and large-scale irrigation would have grown side by side
small-scale irrigation would have required a certain amount of administration, which would have expanded the irrigation system, which in turn would have required greater administration and so forth
it was not irrigation itself, but the centralized coordination of irrigation activities that had important social consequences
it is possible that centralized administration and large-scale irrigation works were present at and early date, but because their growth was not incremental they only became obvious in the archaeological and textual records after they had reached major proportions
The ancient Maya civilization arose in an area where irrigation was of marginal importance (though water control and management were important activities)
Even in arid Mexico and Mesopotamia, archaeological evidence indicates that complex, large-scale irrigation appeared only after the state had already formed
Model is relevant to "pristine states", not late "macro-state" formations like the Aztec and Inca empires
does not explain why Inca and Mexica became the imperial leaders

11. Robert Carneiro-Warfare
Theory grows out of hypotheses which emphasize the importance of population growth and population pressure
Formulated hypothesis using South American examples, but applied it to the Near East as well
Hypothesis is based on general regularity about the environmental settings of early civilizations throughout the world
they are areas of circumscribed agricultural land
each area is bounded by mountains, seas, or deserts, which sharply delimited the area that simple farming people could have occupied
Expanding population could not accomodate itself by colonizing new lands
Instead, it had to intensify production on lands already being used
Military conflicts between groups became more frequent
losers were not able to flee to new farmlands were assimilated into the winner's society as a lower class
successful militarists were rewarded by economic wealth, increasing amounts of land, and a conquered class of workers
Adaptive advantages of organizing and controlling a successful military operation quickly lead to institutionalization in the form of an early state
state then grows in size as a result of external conquests
Population growth in itself is insufficient to engender warfare, but population pressure does engender warfare if the expanding populations is constrained either by environmental barriers or by competing social groups whose populations aree so dense as to preclude expansion

12. Interregional and Intraregional-Trade & Exchange
Advent of large-scale trade necessitated administrative organization to control the procurement, production, and distribution of goods
Such an organization would have had access to a major source of wealth in the community and its power might have been extended to other aspects of society
Larger settlements would have resulted from competition for agricultural land

13. Robert Adams-Cultural Systems
Considered causation and structure of civilization from a multifaceted perspective
Stated that the evidence supports the position that "the transformation at the core of the Urban Revolution lay in the realm of social organization... For the most part, changes in social institutions precipitated changes in technology, subsistence, and other aspects of the wider cultural realm, rather than vice versa."
Urban Revolution implied focus on ordered, systematic processes of change that can be described in terms of a functionally related core of institutions that interacted and evolved
Attempts to avoid the term civilization by investigating the complex core of social institutions that interacted to form early state society
Model does not favor single-factor explanations, but emphasizes complexity and systemic relationships

14. Three major transformations
Three major transformations: first two led to urban centers that were controlled by a religious elite and the third resulted in growth of secular state authority
first transformation - changes in subsistence strategies
combination of cultivated crops and herd animals or fishing yielded a stable food base that allowed the population to increase in size and density
exchange and redistribution of food was managed by members of the temple community
growth of this centralized means of redistribution gave the temple elite the power to coerce farmers or herders into producing surpluses
what limited food production was not land but the availability of water
natural water courses and small-scale irrigation works allowed only a part of the available land to be adequately irrigated
even areas that were irrigated were not equally productive
differential in productivity emerged
Those who controlled land close to the natural courses of the river were able to produce more crops and to produce them even in years of low precipitation
this led to major differentiation of wealth among farmers, which was compounded by their ability to buy additional irrigable land
differential access to water was the first step in the emergence of class society

15. Three major transformations
Second major transformation - a shift from kin-based to class-structured society
kinship was the basis for organizational structure in early Mesopotamian society
such ties were influential in early administrative efforts
economic division of subsistence activities and craft production led to specialization by family in one or more economic pursuits
wealth accumulated by controlling good land and by managing the distribution of its products resulted in the acquisition by a few families of reat wealth and power
these families attempted to retain their wealth and power by advocating an organizational structure that institutionalized the differences that were emerging
structure would have been largely based on economic activities connected with a person's lineage
religious elite would have formed upper strata of society
Third major transformation - transfer of administrative power from the temple to the state
happened largely because of increasing militarism

16. Kent Flannery-Cultural Systems
More explicitly systems-oriented perspective
Notes that what produces surplus is the coercive power of real authority
Segregation
internal differentiation and specialization of subsystems of the society
appearance of new institutions or new levels in the control hierarchy
Centralization
strengthening of higher-level controls
linkage between the subsystems and the highest-order controlling apparatus in the society
hallmark in the evolution of such complex systems as the state is the increasing centralization and interdependence of the various subsystems
powerful centralized management often evolves at the top of the hierarchy to offset the instability that would occur if one subsystem affected all other subsystems
among most important institutions are those which regulate the flow of information to constituent groups within a society
central development in the rise of civilization was the increasing necessity for mechanisms with which to communicate information
societies with organization based on kinship or religion could handle a considerable amount of detailed information
Highly formalized institutions of early civilizations carried information regulation and dissemination much further than had heretofore been done
enabled the scale of organization that developed into the state

17. Geoff Conrad and Arthur Demarest- Ideology
China
the wealth that produced the Chinese civilization was the product of concentrated political power
acquisition of that power was accomplished through the accumulation of wealth
key to this circular working was the monopoly of high shamanism
enabled rulers to gain critical access to divine and ancestral wisdom, which became the basis for their political authority
shamans were employed by the politically powerful
king himself was known to possess shaman's powers
"When the road to Heaven was monopolized by the possessors of shamanistic powers, ancient art and ritual were the sources of political clout, and the accumulation of art and ritual objects was an instrument of social stratification"

18. Ideology
Mesopotamia
concepts of misharum (equality) and anduranum (freedom)
appeared under reign of Entemena ( BC)
fundamental bases of the political contract uniting the responsibility of the rulers to the ruled
New Year's celebrations afforded an occasion for the King to cancel all private debts and state taxes, punish corrupt administrators, free slaves, and fine or imprison avaricious merchants
royal decrees were considered essential for sustaining the immutable nature of both the cosmic and social order
law was conceived of as timeless and impersonal
royal power held in check by the conception of law as well as assembly of elders and by the priesthood
was the duty of the kings to be just, make the laws function equitably, and to be subject to the law, rather than considered its source
concepts served as a point of departure for the codification of law
were the foundation for the social contract between the rulers and the ruled, between different classes, and ideally without prejudice as to sex, nationality, or religious belief

19. How do we study Complex Societies?
Written Language
some complex societies had written language, but not all.
*i.e. The Andean societies had special historians to remember events.
writing systems began as pictures or pictographs, called Ideographic Writing Systems.
*i.e. Chinese writing system developed in this way, has as many as ,000 characters that represent a meaning.
One who undertakes the task of understanding an ancient text must draw upon ideas and information from a range of disciplines: anthropology, archeology, art history, economics, linguistics, mathematics, political and social history, psychology and theology.

20. Writing Systems
Pictograph is a direct image of the object it represents.
Ideograph are pictograms that represent ideas linked to a particular object.
Phonograph-An ideogram becomes a phonogram when it also stands for the sounds of the word
Logographic-the written character represents both the meaning and pronunciation of a word.
An example of a logographic system is Chinese writing
Syllabic-can be efficiently used for languages in which words can be phonologically represented by relatively few syllables (about one hundred in Japanese), and in which there are no underlying consonant clusters.
Consonantal alphabet-only the consonants are symbolically represented (for example, Hebrew and Arabic).
Alphabet writing-a few sympols (letters).
Mixed script (like the Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example, that are a mixture of logograms and phonograms)

21. Logograms-Chinese Writing

22. Early Chinese Logograms: Recorded on animal bone

23. Alphabetic-Translation of Hungarian Runes

24. How do we study Complex Societies?
Specialization-people involved in nonagricultural activities such as pottery, metalworking, and weaving.
Status and Social ranking-archaeologists can observe differences in houses, burial style and material goods.
Trade and Exchange-with increased social complexity, trade expanded.
Religion
many elements of complex society is involved in religion, but studying it is difficult.
can understand practical items, but how do we get to know what a religion meant to people.
*i.e. any item whose function is not known has a tendency to be explained as a ritual object.

25. Craft Specialization-Ceremonial Vessels from Egypt

26. How do we study Complex Societies?
Monumental Architecture
Helps to locate sites, provides information about political organization, ritual beliefs and lifeways.
*i.e. Sumerian ziggurats (5,000 B.P.) served as religious and food distribution centers.
Egyptian pyramids-first built by Pharaoh Djoser 4,680 B.P. built as burial chambers.
The Great Pyramid at Giza is 481 feet tall and covers 13 acres.

27. Egypt-Monumental Architecture
The Pyramid of Menkaure, son of Khafre.
King Sneferu’s Bent Pyramid
Khufu, son of King Sneferu. The Great Pyramid is the only surviving member of the Seven Wonders of the World (Height: m ( ft) Length of Side: ).

28. Ancient Chinese Civilizations-Monumental Architecture
Dunhuang and the Cave of Manuscripts 111 BC
Northern end of the Mogao cliff face, pitted with caves for shelter 366 A.D.