1. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers

2. Which is a penny

3. Memory: Persistence of learning over time using
3 pillars of memory:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval of info
Flashbulb Memory: Where were you when…?
a clear memory of an intense emotional moment or event
Pictures, others’ retelling, etc., can affect so “remember” things we didn’t really experience
Memory as Information Processing
How it is similar to a computer:
write to file (encoding)
save to disk (storage)
read from disk (retrieve)

4. Retrieval: accessing the info:
1 way it is NOT similar:
We___ process…computers ___ process
Encoding: placing info into memory systems
i.e., extracting meaning (comprehend it so can process…)
EX: New word suddenly appears everywhere?
Storage
retention of encoded info over time…
putting it into neural networks…making connections, etc.
Retrieval: accessing the info:
process of getting info out of memory

5. Memory: 4 different types:
Sensory Memory
immediate, 1st recording of sensory info in
memory systems
In bits, quick…& most NOT stored
EX: ppl walking down the hallway…do you see all of them? Hear all? Or just “flashes”? What do you keep (retain)?
Short-Term Memory (STM)
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
look up a phone #, then quickly dial b4 the info is forgotten

6. Memory: 4 types continued…
Working Memory
Newer term…extension of STM
processing of briefly stored info: What’s on your “desktop” at a given moment to work w/
What about working on a paper/essay?
Longer time on “desk-top” : beginning to make connections to enable storage
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
the relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system

7. A Simplified Memory Model: Where would working memory fit in here?
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
Retrieving

8. Encoding: Getting Info In: 2 ways 1
Encoding: Getting Info In: 2 ways 1. Effortful: rehearsing to try to encode… EX’s? 2. Automatic: just sorta’ happens that we recall EX’s? EBBINGHAUS: study of memory
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic

9. Encoding Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental info
 Space  Frequency
 Time  Daily events
well-learned info: hard to shut off
word meanings…someone calls you a name?
Using effortful, we can change it into automatic processing
Ex: reading backwards: do it enough, begins to be automatic; typing

10. Effortful (putting effort into it) Processing
requires attention & conscious effort…
…& often requires…
 Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
Over-learning: Even after have learned it, still practice & rehearse = v. good retention …know it backwards & forwards…

11. Ebbinghaus (348): used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
more times practiced Day 1, the less repetitions to relearn on Day 2…i.e., amt. remembered depends on amt. of time spent learning
Found nonsense syllables less effective in remembering than meaningful info WHY? connections in networks
Created “forgetting curve” (retention curve)
 Spacing Effect: distributed practice gives
better long- term retention than massed
i.e., shorter but more frequent sessions = better learning than long, cramming sessions!
*This is a VERY important piece of info 4 U !!!!

12. Encoding: Ebbinghaus’s retention curve20 15 10 5 8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutes
taken to relearn
list on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1

13. Tendency to recall best the last items & the first items in a list
Encoding: Serial Position Effect (Place in a series…)  How could you use this info?
Serial Position Effect:
Tendency to recall best the last items & the first items in a list
Those in the middle tend to blend (or blur) together…ALSO..
*Availability *Frequency 12
Percentage of
words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Position of word in list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11

14. What We Encode: 3 types: 1. Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning
including meaning of words + how it relates to other things
Tends to create deeper levels of processing
2. Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound, especially sound of words
EX: Rhymes easily remembered (“If the glove don’t fit…!”)
3. Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images
Creates more shallow processing

15. Encoding: See p. 350: Sample
Encoding: See p. 350: Sample ?’s: Visual often = shallow processing But semantic tends to be deeper processing

16. Imagery: “A picture is worth…”
Mental pictures: seeing w/ words
Can be powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
“wreck” vs. “crash”? Creating visual images in your head, not w/ real pics
Mnemonics: “stupid memory tricks…”
Greek, Mnemos (goddess of memory)
memory aids, espec. techniques using vivid imagery & organizational devices
Names of the Great Lakes? Planets?
In 10 seconds, memorize the #’s next SL

17. Take 10 seconds to memorize this series of #’s

18. Chunking: a type of Mnemonic
Method of Loci:
Chunking: a type of Mnemonic
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
Like horizontal organization
We often do this automatically
Phone #’s or SSN’s: Not but
use of acronyms: word or sentences to remember
EX: HOMES: Huron, Ontar., Michig., Erie, Superi.
Colors of the rainbow in order of wavelengths? Planets?
Which is easier to remember? OR

19. Organized info is more easily recalled
Encoding: Chunking
Organized info is more easily recalled
2 better than 1… 4 better than 3, etc.

20. Hierarchies: Categorizing related items
Listed items remembered better in categories
-poorer recall if randomly
Even if list is random, ppl still organize info into some logical pattern
*Break complex info down into broad concepts & subdivide more into categories & subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Organization
Chunks
Hierarchies

21. Storage: Retaining Info
Iconic Memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli…EX?
photographic or pic. image memory lasting few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

22. Storage: Short-Term Memory10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentage
who recalled
consonants
STM:
limited in duration & capacity
“Magical” number:
7 (+/-) 2
(5 or or 9)

23. Storage: Long-Term Memory
How storage works:
Karl Lashley (1950): cut out part of rats’ brains
rats learn maze
lesion in cortex
test memory
**Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation (remember action potentials??)
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions = stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning & retention

24. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Amnesia--the loss of memory
Explicit Memory (aka “declarative”)
memory of facts & experiences we can consciously know & declare
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory (aka procedural):
retention independent of conscious recollection
EX: a skill…typing

25. LTM Subsystems (B. p. 359): (Chart = EX of what mnemonic??)
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative
or procedural)
W/o conscious recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
Skills-motor
& cognitive
Dispositions-
classical &
operant
conditioning
effects

26. MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
LTM Storage:
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus = brain area that converts info from STM & WM into LTM…works in conjunction w/ areas of frontal lobe
Hippocampus, just like hemispheres, is lateralized
(left & right side w/ differ. functions for each)
Hippocampus

27. Various categories of memory

28. Another memory model including the “Central Executive”

29. Retrieval: Getting Information Out (Use EX’s for each
Retrieval: Getting Information Out (Use EX’s for each!) (R = 3 R’s + a P!)
Recall
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier EX’s?
Recognition
Measure of memory in which the person has only to ID items previously learned EX’s?
Relearning: Looking at how much time saved when learning material 2nd time EX’s?
Priming: using cues (or clues) to activate, often unconsciously, particular associations in memory…
i.e., connections to networks… EX’s?

30. Retrieval Cues (X) Percentage of words recalled Different contexts for10 20 30 40
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing & recall
Same contexts for hearing & recall
Percentage of
words recalled

31. Deja Vu (French: already seen)
cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before.“
However, ppl resist believing this answer… b/c = “it’s so real!”
Mood-congruent Memory: We recall experiences consistent w/ our current mood
memory, emotion, & moods become retrieval cues
-sad? remember things you felt when sad b4
-angry? recall memories when last angry
State-dependent Memory: What’s learned in one state [condition] (like high, drunk, or depressed) is remembered more easily later in same situation
EX: If practice on field rather than gym, will remember new skill better --SAT at GHS?

32. State Dependent Learning:
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context EX: If we move kid to playpen, less likely to show this activity as quickly.

33. State Dependent Learning…?

34. 7 Sins of memory: Ways memory fails us (365-6):
a) 3 of forgetting:
Absent-mindedness: inattention
Transience: unused fades
Blocking: interference…tip-of-the-tongue
b) 3 of distortion: We mislead selves or others mislead
Misattribution: confusing the source
Suggestibility: effects of mis-info (false mem.)
Bias: pre-conceived ideas control mem.
c) 1 of intrusion: Persistence: unwanted mem.’s are just not “filed” (motivated forgetting)

35. Forgetting: (365)
1. Encoding failure 2. Storage decay 3. Retrieval failure
1. Forgetting as encoding failure: Info doesn’t go to LTM b/c of inattention…or bias…or misattribution, etc. EX: Which is the Penny?
2… Storage decay: Use it or loose it…
EX: foreign lang. use?
3… Retrieval failure (368) Can’t retrieve info from LTM b/c of blocking, interference, etc.
Motivated Forgetting (370)
ppl unknowingly revise memories b/c it is what you would rather believe (denial?)
Repression: Freud’s term for “defense mechanism” that removes from consciousness upsetting thoughts, feelings, & memories

36. Retrieval failure leads to forgetting OR Encoding failure leads
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
& working
Memory
Long-term
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-
term
Long-
Attention
Encoding
OR Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting

37. Forgetting Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve over 30 days–1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
Time in days since learning list
% of list
retained
when
relearning
Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve over 30 days–
Initially rapid, then levels off with time

38. Time in yrs after completion of Spanish course
Forgetting
The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retention
drops,
then levels off
½ 14½ ½ ½
Time in yrs after completion of Spanish course
100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
% of
original
Vocab.
retained

39. Forgetting as Interference (369)
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other info
Can go 1 of 2 ways…
1) Proactive (forward  acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information…old interrupts ne
EX: Knew Judy…meet Julie…
…keep calling her Judy
2) Retroactive (backwards  acting)
Interference
Learning new info interrupts recall of old
but now if you see Judy, you call her Julie

40. Forgetting as Interference 2nd example: Learn French…then Spanish

41. Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting: Going for a walk or sleeping can limit retro interference -new info makes old info hard to retrieve
Retroactive Interference
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
After sleep
After remaining awake
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage
of syllables
recalled

42. EX: Latin helps us learn French…or advanced English words
Positive transfer:
Opposite of interference …b/c old info can often HELP (or facilitate) remembering
EX: Latin helps us learn French…or advanced English words
Why might advertisers NOT want to advertise during violent TV shows? (b-369)

43. Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process info, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Meta-cognition: what we know about what we know or can remember…Most ppl. over-estimate ability in this!!

44. Memory Construction We filter info & fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading info into our memory of an event (wreck/crash?)
Source Amnesia (misattribution): attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, …or even imagined
Eyewitness testimony
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned …..?’s can affect mem.
E-W memory CAN be unreliable
Emotion can affect
EX: Priest & Gentleman Bank Robber? “Evil Salsa man?”

45. Eyewitness testimony. “…When they hit =14%” “…When they smashed = __
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction

46. 2 Types of amnesia: A) Retrograde: Forget your past: Who am I
2 Types of amnesia: A) Retrograde: Forget your past: Who am I? Where am I from? B) Anterograde: Forget the present …can’t form new memories: No STM gets to LTM Damage to what part of limbic system?

47. Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
“repressed” = Freud’s term for it…aka “blocked”
False Memory Syndrome
Condition where a person’s identity & relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
Sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Guidelines are now set to try to stop or limit these

48. Memory Construction: Mem. of abuse: RE: the
Memory Construction: Mem. of abuse: RE: the ? of recovered (repressed) memories:
Injustice happens….
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Unpleasant memories…false OR real…are upsetting
But most ppl. (& psy.) do agree on the following:
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable …meaning they must be looked at carefully
Memories of things happening b4 age 3 are unreliable

49. 9 Ways to Improve Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recall
Make material personally meaningful (relate to things you already know)
Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation & mood
Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference
Use mnemonic devices
associate w/ “peg” words—something you’ve already stored
make up story about the info…or tell someone about the info
Use chunking & acronyms

50. 7. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material…
8. Take a break!
9. Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet know
And be sure to Use Elaboration: Ways…
-Actively question new information
-Think about its implications
-Relate information to things you already know
-Generate your own examples of concepts
-Don’t just highlight passage as you read
-Focus on the main or big ideas in the text
-Organize these ideas hierarchically
? Activity NEXT…. STOP!

51. Point 1: Thalamus: Should describe the role of the thalamus in the process, specifically that the neural message from the retina first passes through the thalamus, and that the thalamus routes the impulse elsewhere in the brain. Point 2: Retina: Should explain that the light that passes through the pupil, eventually reflected on the pupil, activating neurons in the retina. May use the terms rods and/or cones to describe these neurons, but they do not have to use these specific terms to earn this point.

52. Point 3: Pupil: Should describe how light reflects off the object, and some of the light passes thru pupil into the eye. Point 4: Transduction: Should explain that light waves that were reflected off object are changed into neural impulses (transduction) at the point of the retina, where neurons fire in response to light waves. Again, may use the terms rods and/or cones to describe these neurons, but they do not have to use these specific terms to earn this point. Point 5: Action potential: Should explain that action potentials are released when neurons fire, sending an electrical charge thru the neuron. Students can go on to explain this process in more detail (describing the role of neural structures such as dendrites & the axon) but they nt have to explain those details to earn the point.

53. Point 6: Feature detector:
Should discuss the role of feature detectors in their visual perception.
Should mention it comes from the thalamus, which routed the neural impulse to the feature detectors, and these groups of neurons organize the neural firings into a conscious visual perception of the object.
Students can identify the specific location of the feature detectors (visual cortex in the occipital lobe), but they do not have to provide this detail to earn the point.

54. CH 8/9 FRQ’s
Continuous: (Define!) When someone gives one response, they get something each time. An example would be putting $1 into a drink machine and getting a drink out (a reinforcer). But if you give the required response and do not get the reinforcer, then you quit immediately giving the response. Fixed: In this situation, you give a specific number of responses will take you longer to consistently give desired response, but if reinforcer does not come subject is more likely to keep giving the response at least for awhile.

55. Mattress List 1: 12 Night Bed Sheets Snooze sleep Alarm Avocado x Nap
Blanket
Light
Pillow
Pajamas
Mattress

56. List 2 creek flow delta meander flood branchX water River stream bridge Rocks fish banks

57. List 3: Thread Pin Thimble Sharp Injectionx Eye Prick Pain Bleed needle Sewing Point Knitting