1. Chapter 1 Honors Biology Part II Notes

2. II. Unifying Themes of Biology
1. The Unity of life’s diversity:
- Organization & Cell Theory
-The Genetic Code (DNA) & Classification
2. Evolution:
- Charles Darwin, Natural Selection,
- Adaptations
3. Interdependence:
- Relationships between living things
- The Environment & Ecology

3. 1. Diversity and unity of life
Themes of Biology
1. Diversity and unity of life
there are millions of species of organisms
Diversity = Differences 3

4. But how is all of life unified?
All life is organized:
Made of cells
All life has DNA:
The genetic code
**all life has hereditary information in DNA
Its is found in the cell’s nucleus
It is identical in all cells of an organism

5. Cells represent Unity because they are features that all organisms have in common.
List a few
things all these types of cells have in common.

6. Myth Busters: Is dust really mostly made up of human skin?
Dust mites
The myth household dust
is mostly human skin; 70,
80 or 99 per cent!
The "truth“ No evidence
shows dust is mostly made
up of any one ingredient;
rather, it is a potpourri of everything that is likely to be drifting around your house – skin cells, dust mites and their feces, cat dander, face powder, cigar ash, soil, pollen, insect excreta, and general industrial pollution

7. DNA- all cells have DNA -–DNA is short for Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA is a large macromolecule that stores hereditary information
-–DNA is short for Deoxyribonucleic acid
-Double helix shape is formed by nitrogenous base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
It’s twisted ladder shape (double helix) is about 3 feet long in a single cell

8. “Unity of Life’s Diversity”
Taxonomy: the classification of organisms
Tree of Life: shows that all living things have descended with modification from a single common ancestor

9. Phylogenic Tree
Shows relationships:
between 3 Domains & 6 Kingdoms

10. Taxonomic Classification:
3 domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
6 Kingdoms: Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Further divided into smaller Taxonomic groups:
phyla
class
order
family
genus
species

11. 3 Domains Archaea -Prokaryotic cells (unicellular)
-little understood, recently discovered life
-probably oldest cells & found in extreme environments
KINGDOM– Archaea
Bacteria = Prokaryotic cells (unicellular)
-all the common bacteria, both good & bad
-KINGDOM—Bacteria
3. Eukarya = Eukaryotic cells (have a nucleus)
There are four kingdoms in Eukarya
* Protista * Fungi
* Plantae * Animalia

12. The Tree of Life: -The relationships by ancestry among organisms
Three domains
-2 are prokaryotic
-1 Eukaryotic

13. 6 Kingdoms- examples Archaea, Bacteria, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
usuarios.lycos.es
usmo4.discoverlife.org
danny.oz.au

14. (2nd Theme in Biology)
2. Evolution
Theory that organisms change over time, the driving force is the environment.
Natural Selection- process by which adaptation is passed on to the next generation for best survival.
Adaptations-
-are favorable traits
-Ex.- cactus plants
adapted to desert

15. Science & Religion- in answer to your questions:
Occasionally, the media may report on the “conflict” between religion & science- implying that one must “choose” – or that science has “replaced” religion.
For most there is no conflict! Many famous scientists were Christians who used their Judeo-Christian belief in a rational God as the foundation for their study.
Even Evolution is NOT contrary to personal faith.

16. Charles Darwin-
English naturalist who presented compelling evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors, through the process he called natural selection.

17. Darwin’s trip around the world on the H. M. S
Darwin’s trip around the world on the H.M.S.Beagle, especially the stops in South America & the Galapagos Islands were the basis for his work.

18. Darwin saw unusual things on his voyage & tried to explain them:
Strange Fossils
Large tortoises
Many kinds of beaks on finches

19. Summary: 4 Main Parts of Darwin’s Reasoning
1. Overproduction- more offspring are produced than can survive
2. Genetic Variation- within a population, individuals have different traits
3. Struggle to Survive- individuals must compete with each other to exist.
4. Differential Reproduction- Organisms with the best adaptations to environment more likely to survive & reproduce.

20. Chapter 15
4 Main Parts of Darwin’s Reasoning
Natural Selection

21. A simple example of Natural Selection
tiny fish may be able to hide under rocks and not get eaten by a predator
next generation has fewer large fish, “nature” has selected for smaller fish in that pond

22. adaptation
the ability of a species to survive in a particular ecological niche, esp. because of alterations of form or behavior brought about through natural selection 22

23. Evolution: Darwin’s Finches

24. Evolution
discuss the ideas that make up the mechanism for evolution- NATURAL SELECTION.
For example:

25. Terms about Structure & Function
Biology Terms: Extra Info that you will need to know
Terms about Structure & Function
Morphology – the structure and form of an organism
Anatomy – the branch of morphology that deals with internal structure
Structure is almost
always related to
function.
Example- Bird beaks-
shape shows how
it gets food

26. 3. Interdependence Biotic Factors – living organisms
II. 3 Themes in Biology
3. Interdependence
Ecology- How organisms interact with both other organisms & the environment.
Biotic Factors – living organisms
Abiotic Factors - non-living part of the environment (water, temperature, soil type,etc)
Ecosystems- Communities of different living species (Biotic factors)& interact with each other & their non-living environment (Abiotic factors).

27. Ecology
Is the study of how
organisms interact
with each other and
their physical environment.
Environment – everything- biotic & abiotic- surrounding an organism

28. Energy Relationships -study how organisms get, use & transfer energy
Sun- Source of almost all energy
Autotrophs- Organisms that make their own energy (food) (photosynthesis)
Heterotrophs – Organisms that obtain energy by eating other organisms

29. Food Chain & Food web in an Antarctic Ecosystem
All food chains must start with a
producer (autotroph)!!!
What is the difference between a food chain & a food web?

30. Note numbers of organisms:
Chart: many times more producers than large carnivores

31. Ecology Levels of Organization
ORGANISM -Simplest Level (1 living thing)
POPULATION- All the members of the same species - that live in one place at a given time & make-up a breeding group.
COMMUNITY- Includes all the interacting populations in one area.
ECOSYSTEM- Includes all the living (biotic) & non-living (abiotic) factors in the environment.
BIOSPHERE- Thin layer of life around earth.

32. Levels of Organization

33. That’s more than five children born every second!
The future:
Note that the human population level on planet Earth is now approaching 7 billion individuals.
That’s more than five children born every second!

34. Sustainability: The ability to meet today’s needs without sacrificing the needs of future generations

35. Science & Society
Applied Science- knowledge from biological science can be used to improve human life
Bioethics – The study of what is right or wrong as it applies to biological concerns.
Biotechnology- technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine
genetic engineering, & DNA Technology- making new forms of life by transferring genes from one organism into another- like inserting gene for enzyme Chymosin -from the stomach of calves into the DNA of both bacteria and yeasts-

36. technology
application of scientific research to society's needs and problems 36

37. Biotechnology: Genetically engineered cheese
–cheese is now cheaply made
- with genetically modified yeast chymosin,
(an enzyme which curdles milk, found in calves, who
drink milk, but not in normal yeast!)

38. Genetic Medical Applications
Making medicine- until recently- medicine had to be collected from plants or made from chemicals. Now can make body substances like human blood clotting factors, insulin, vaccines & (HGH) HumanGrowthHormone with GM bacteria.
Making body parts- may be able to clone cells & make new organs so that no rejection occurs. May be able to grow new human liver in another organism like a pig.
May also be able to screen for diseases, create “designer babies”, cure cancer.

39. Gene Therapy
Example: replace or repair faulty gene for cystic fibrosis.
Insert a copy of good gene from healthy person into virus.
Infect patient’s lungs with virus, virus delivers good gene. Now patient can make the right protein to stop accumulation of mucus & can breathe normally.
Imagine being this mother of child with CF,
Daily you must massage & loose mucus.
Any cold could overwhelm & cause death.
Now imagine what gene therapy represents.

40. Examples: Featherless chicken
a controversial featherless chicken which they say is faster growing.
will not need to be plucked, saving money in processing plants.
they would not be suitable for cooler countries,but OK in hot climates
There was a rumor that KFC uses these already but it is not true.

41. Fishy Strawberries Flounder is a fish that can withstand
icy cold temperatures.
Scientists took the gene in the fish that
Produces an antifreeze & inserted it into
a plasmid of a bacterium
The bacterium infected the strawberry &
the flounder antifreeze gene entered the
strawberry’s DNA
The new GM strawberry cells are grown
Into new plants that have strawberries
which make a protein that keeps the fruit
from frost damage.

42. Golden Rice is part of the solution to world hunger & malnutrition.
GM foods- Golden Rice
Golden Rice is part of the solution to world hunger & malnutrition.
-Biofortified rice may alleviate life-threatening micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries-(decrease starvation)
- Genetically modified- gene for provitamin A (β-carotene), is inserted into rice genome.

43. All living things have the same genetic building blocks
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
has 4 nitrogenous bases which make up the “alphabet” for the genetic code.
SO- the same sequence of DNA (gene) codes for an enzyme, a protein or other molecule no matter which organism that gene is in.
That is the basis for Gene technology

44. Biotechnology
There is currently much debate among scientists, politicians & environmentalist about the safety & quality of genetically modified products, especially foods.
It is very likely that you have already eaten multiple products that were produced with biotechnology and/or DNA technology

45. III. The Study of Biology
A. The Scientific Method Steps:
1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Prediction
4. Experiment
5. Data Analysis/ Conclusions
6. Communication/ Verification
B. Evaluating Bias- at times, scientists have conflicts of interest. A scientist’s goal should be finding facts, not support of government agency agenda or the desired results of a pharmaceutical company.

46. Remember: Experiment terms
Control group provides a normal standard against which we compare results of the experimental group.
Experimental group is identical to the control group except for one factor.
Variables: factors that change
Theory -a set of related hypotheses confirmed to be true many times
An advantage of the scientific method is that it is unbiased & repeatable.

47. Controlled Experiment
A control group provides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results with the experimental group
An experimental group is identical to the control group except for one factor, the independent or manipulated variable.
***Other variables that may affect the outcome of the experiment should be the same in both control and experimental groups 47

48. Implementing the Scientific Method
The scientific method is used to solve problems
It is not an exact process
No Experiment is a Failure
If negative results occur, a scientist can show that a certain hypothesis is not valid
An experiment can be successful even if it shows that a hypothesis is not consistent with observations

49. Communicating Ideas Publishing or presenting experimental results
Four Parts of a Paper
Introduction – states problem and hypothesis to be investigated
Materials and Methods – what was used and how
Results – Findings using graphs, tables, charts
Discussion – conclusion, error sources, significance of experiment, and future needs are discussed
Paper submitted for Peer Review
Errors, conflict of interest and honesty is checked
Allows science a method to self-correct mistakes

50. Read the following passage and answer these questions with a partner:
An environmental engineering firm has been called to determine why fish are dying in a local stream. A red liquid was observed leaking from a mine that while fish were dead downstream, there were no dead fish upstream from the mine.
Give a possible hypothesis.
Design an experiment to test your hypothesis.
What is the control in your experiment.
List dependent & independent variables.

51. IV. Tools & Techniques A. Microscopes 1. Types of Microscopes
*Compound light microscope
-shines light through a specimen
(must have thin slice of object)
-uses 2 lens to magnify image.
*Electron microscope
-SEM (scanning electron microscope)
-TEM (transmission electron microscope)
2. The parts of the Microscope- see hand out

52. Compound microscopes Used to magnify thin slices of specimens

53. Magnification with each lens
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION=
low power magnification X eye piece magnification
The eyepiece is 10X
Low power is 4X
Other lens may vary- usually
- 10X
- 40X

54. Microscope Use: ALWAYS begin use & focus with the
Carry the microscope with 2 hands-
By the “arm” & one hand under the base
Look through eyepiece & keep both eyes open
Place the slide that you want to view over the aperture and gently move the stage clips over top of the slide to hold it into place.
ALWAYS begin use & focus with the
*Microscope on LOW Power (4X) !!!!
*Make sure the stage is all the way down.!!!!!
Always Begin focusing with the coarse adjustment

55. Light Microscopes The eyepiece magnifies the image.
The objective lens enlarges the specimen.
The stage is a platform that supports slides with specimens.
The light source is a light bulb that provides light for viewing images.

56. Magnification & Resolution
Magnification is the increase of an object’s apparent size.
Resolution is the power to show details clearly in an image.

57. Figure 1. Relative Size of Microbes. E. M
Figure 1. Relative Size of Microbes. E.M. refers to the Electron Microscope.
                                                         

58. Object Size and Magnifying Power of Microscopes

59. B. Other tools
Centrifuge-spinning separation of materials in a liquid that have different densities
Autoclave – heating chamber to disinfect
Chromatography -is any technique that separates different substances based on their chemical or physical properties
Electrophoresis - is a technique for separating particles that have an electrical charge.
Spectrophotometer -determines what a substance is by measuring the amount of each wavelength of light absorbed by the sample.
Computers are one of the most important tools used in biology studies.

60. Electron Microscopes
Scanning electron microscopes pass a beam of electrons over the specimen’s surface for better viewing the external surface of a specimen.
Transmission electron microscopes transmit a beam of electrons through a thinly sliced specimen for better viewing the internal structures of a specimen.

61. C. Units of Measure SI Units
Scientists use a single, standard system of measurement, called the metric system. The official name of the metric system is Système International d’Unités or SI.

62. The Metric System
The metric system is also called the International System of Units or SI
It is a single unified system that is used in nearly every country in the world.
This includes the scientific community
The English system uses feet, inches, pounds, and quarts.

63. Prefixes of the Metric System
tera
1012
trillion
   G
giga
109
billion
   M
mega
106
million
   k
kilo
103
1 000
thousand
   h
hecto*  
102
100
hundred
   da
deka*
101 10
ten
BASE Unit
Meter-Liter-Gram 1
one
   d
deci*
10-1
0.1
tenth
   c
centi*
10-2
0.01
hundredth
   m
milli
10-3
0.001
thousandth
   µ
micro
10-6
millionth
   n
nano
10-9
billionth
   p
pico
10-12
trillionth