Modern patterns of world history: 1800 – 1945

CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C
Modern patterns of world history: 1800 – 1945 This period was characterized by major developments: Industrialization Western domination of the world The rise of nationalism The industrial revolution became one of the major forces of change n the 19th C at it led western civilization into the industrial era that has characterized the modern world. Beginning in Britain it spread to the continent and the western hemisphere in the course of the 19th C. The industrial revolution created the technological means, including new weapons, by which the west achieved domination of the rest of the world by the end of the 19h C The existence of European nations states after 1870 was undoubtedly a major determinant in leading European states to embark on heir intense scramble for overseas territory. The industrial age had a number of lasting consequences for the world at large. Increased standard of living for some within the nation Widening disparities in the distribution of wealth With the decline in pervasiveness of religious belief, a sense of rootlessness and alienation among much of the population The Rise of Nationalism The idea of nationalism originated in the 18th C Europe where it was a product of the secularization of the age and the experience of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic eras It provided the basis for a new sense of community and the rise of the modern nation-state It gave birth to the ethnic tensions and hatreds that resulted in bitter disputes and civil strife Contributed to the competition that eventually erupted into world war Industrialization and the rise of national consciousness also transformed the nature of war itself. New weapons of mass destruction created the potential for a new kind of warfare tat reached beyond the battlefield into the very heartland of the enemy's territory The concept of nationalism transformed war from the sport of kings to a matter of national honor and commitment. In the end industrial power and the driving force of nationalism, the factors that created the conditions for European global dominance also contained the seeds for decline. 1

Focus Question What were the basic features of the new industrial system created by the industrial revolution? What effects did the new system have on urban life, social classes, family life and standards of living?

The Beginnings of Modernization
Industrial production. Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new sources of energy New machines. new ways of organizing human labor factories replaced workshops and home workrooms Shift from agriculture & handicraft based economy to manufacturing The Industrial revolution triggered an enormous leap in industrial production. Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new sources of energy and power to drive laborsaving machines. The machines called for new ways of organizing human labor as factories replaced workshops and home workrooms Europe shifted from an economy based on agriculture and handicrafts to one based on manufacturing by machines and automated factories. Migration from rural living into urban centers Creation of wealthy industrial middle class Huge working industrial class Altered how people related to nature Created an environmental crisis that in the 20th C was finally recognized as a danger to human existence

Impact of Industrialization
Migration from rural living into urban centers Creation of wealthy industrial middle class Huge working industrial class Altered how people related to nature Created an environmental crisis that in the 20th C was finally recognized as a danger to human existence

Industrial Revolution: Factors
Factors that contributed to Great Britain’s Industrial revolution, 1750 Food Supply & population boom Improvements in agricultural practices/production Labor supply pool of surplus (exploitable) labor Capital investment ready supply of capital to invest in machines and factories Profits gained from trade and the cottage industry Effective central bank Well developed flexible credit facilities Values and Ideology Profit motive by individuals The Industrial revolution began sometime after 1750. Factors that coalesced in Britain to produce the Industrial Revolution Improvements in agricultural practices that led to an increase in food production in the 18th C More people could be fed at less cost as a result Ordinary families did not have to use most of their income to by food and therefore had income with which to purchase manufactured goods Rapid population growth provided a pool of surplus labor for the new factories of emerging British industry Britain had a ready supply of capital of reinvestment in the new industrial machines and the factories that were needed to house them Profits gained from trade and the cottage industry Effective central bank Well developed flexible credit facilities Profit motive by individuals Ample supply of mineral resources: coal and iron ore needed in the manufacturing process Parliament contributed to the favorable business climate by providing a stable government and passing laws that protected private property Markets of the common wealth gave British industries an outlet for their manufactured goods British exports quadrupled between 1660 and 1760 Britain had amassed a great empire at the expense of its colonies and other imperial nations or rivals such as the Dutch and the republic of France. Britain's success lay also in the ability to produce cheap manufacture products that were in demand This was made possible by changes in textile productions

Industrial Revolution: Factors
Ample supply of mineral resources: coal and iron ore needed in the manufacturing process Government support Parliament contributed to the favorable business climate passed laws that protected private property Wealth and markets generated from colonies or Common Wealth British exports quadrupled between 1660 and 1760 Britain had amassed a great empire at the expense of its colonies and other imperial nations or rivals such as the Dutch and the Republic of France. Britain's success lay also in the ability to produce cheap manufacture products that were in demand This was made possible by changes in textile productions

The Steam Engine, Steve Watt (1760)
pumped water from mines 3X as quickly as previous engines Pictured here is an early steam engine developed by James Watt. The steam engine revolutionized the production of cotton goods and helped usher in the factory system. Rotary engine (1782) could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery. Steam power was then applied to spinning and weaving, cotton mills soon multiplied throughout England Fired by coal they could be located anywhere Impact on Cotton textile production: 1760 Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton which was farmed out to cottage industries 1787 British imported 22 pounds of cotton million pounds of cotton imported Flying shuttle made weaving on a loom faster and enabled weavers to double their output this created shortages of yarn until Spinning Jenny, James Hargreaves (perfected in 1768) allowed spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities Water powered loom, Edmund Cartwright’s (1787) allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of yarn The invention of the flying shuttle made weaving on a loom faster and enabled weavers to double their output, this created shortages of yarn until James Hargreaves spinning jenny perfected in 1768 allowed spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities Edmund Cartwright's Loom powered by water (1787) allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of yarn Labor was then organized collectively at factories located to rivers and streams: sources of power for these early machines The Steam Engine (1760s) invented by Scottish Engineer Steve Watt pumped water from mines 3X as quickly as previous engines Rotary engine (1782) could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery. Steam power was then applied to spinning and weaving, cotton mills soon multiplied throughout England His boost to cotton textile production: The British Iron Industry was radically transformed during the Industrial Revolution 1780s Henry Cort developed a system called puddling, in which coke, which was derived from coal, was used to burn away impurities in pig or crude iron and produce an iron of high quality The boom ensued 1740 produced 17,000 tons of iron 1840s produced 2 million tons million tons – more than the rest of the world combined Result: New Machines and New industries were built Richar Trevithick (1804) pioneered the first steam powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern Wales The locomotive continue to be developed and by 140 Britain had 6,000 mile of RR RR contributed to the growth and success of the industrial revolution * created new job opportunities Cheaper faster transport Prices on goods fell Markets grew larger increased sales meant more factories and more machinery The Steam Engine, Steve Watt (1760) Technological advances transformed industries & Ushered in factory system © Oxford Science Archive/HIP/Art Resource, NY

Railroad Line from Liverpool to Manchester
The railroad line from Liverpool to Manchester, first opened in 1830, relied on steam locomotives. As is evident in this illustration, carrying passengers was the railroad’s main business. First-class passengers rode in covered cars, second- and third-class passengers in open cars. The British Iron Industry was radically transformed during the Industrial Revolution 1780s Henry Cort developed a system called puddling, in which coke, which was derived from coal, was used to burn away impurities in pig or crude iron and produce an iron of high quality The boom ensued 1740 produced 17,000 tons of iron 1840s produced 2 million tons million tons – more than the rest of the world combined Result: New Machines and New industries were built Richar Trevithick (1804) pioneered the first steam powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern Wales The locomotive continue to be developed and by 140 Britain had 6,000 mile of RR RR contributed to the growth and success of the industrial revolution * created new job opportunities Cheaper faster transport Prices on goods fell Markets grew larger increased sales meant more factories and more machinery © Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

The Industrial Factory
The Factory created a new labor system Laborers worked regular hours and in shifts to keep the machines producing at a steady rate Created a system of work discipline Employees became accustomed to working regular hours and overtime work load increased compared to their rural agricultural life style The Factory created a new labor system Laborers worked regular hours and in shifts to keep the machines producing at a steady rate Created a system of work discipline in which employees became accustomed to working regular hours and overtime – in other words their work load increased compared to their rural agricultural life style Work was boring and discipline was difficult to accomplish – owner resorted to issuing minute and detailed factory regulations Workers were fined for minor infractions Being a few minutes late for work They were dismissed for more serious misdoings: drunkenness With a large unskilled work force – dismissal meant economic disaster for those families Children were disciplined directly by beating 2 and 3rd generations of workers came to view a regular workweek as a natural way of life By the mid 19th C, Britain had become the first and richest industrial nation The workshop, Banker and trader of the world Produced half the worlds coal and manufactured goods

British Cotton Factory, 1851
The development of the factory changed the relationship between workers and employers as workers were encouraged to adjust to a new system of discipline that forced them to work regular hours under close supervision. At the top is an 1851 illustration that shows women working in a British cotton factory. The factory system came later to the rest of the world than it did in Britain. Note that although women are doing the work in both factories, the managers are men. new system of discipline that forced them to work regular hours under close supervision. © CORBIS

The Spread of Industrialization: on the Continent
IN 1815 Belgium, France and German States were still largely agrarian. Obstacles to Industrialization lack of good roads problems with river transit customs barriers along state boundaries increased in costs and prices of goods lack of technical knowledge Borrowed British techniques and practices Gradually the continent achieved technological independence as local people learned all the skills their British teachers had to offer IN 1815 Belgium, France and German States were still largely agrarian. They did not industrialize until the late 1770s due to lack of good roads and problems with river transit, customs barriers along state boundaries increased in costs and prices of goods, lack of technical knowledge was a major obstacle initially. They then borrowed British techniques and practice Gradually the continent achieved technological independence as local people learned all the sills their British teachers had to offer France and German states began to establish a wide range of technical schools to train engineers and mechanics The government also played an extensive role (different than England) in furthering the industrial revolution in these countries, awarding grants to inventors, providing funds to build roads, canals, rail roads By 1850 iron rails spread throughout Europe Also different from England, w the role of the joint stock investment bank Pooled the savings of thousands of small and large investors, creating a supply of capital that could then be plowed back into industry Large industrial machines could be built or bought France and German states Technical Training established a wide range of technical schools to train engineers and mechanics Government support awarding grants to inventors providing funds to build roads, canals, rail roads 11

The Industrialization of Europe by 1850
Great Britain was Europe’s first industrialized country; however, by the middle of the nineteenth century, several regions on the Continent had made significant advances in industrialization, especially in Belgium, France, and the German states.

The Spread of Industrialization United States

Focus Questions What marked the increasing industrialization in the United States economy between 1815 – 1860? How and why did inequalities increase among the rich, the middle class and the working class?

Identifications Transportation, Market & Industrial Revolutions
Immigration and Scapegoat Status of artisan Rhode Island and Waltham System Cult of Domesticity Purity Crusade Universal White Male suffrage 2nd Great Awakening

American Demography 1800 America 1860 America
6 of 7 workers were farmers No city exceeded 100,000 people 1860 America Population sextupled to 30 million people 9 cities exceeded 100,000 people 50% of American workers were farmers

Changes that allowed for the Industrial Revolution
Transportation Revolution Improvements in transportation made that transformation possible Federal, state and corporate investments in transportation improvements Roads, Canals, Railroads Market Revolution Transition from domestic markets to for distant markets Industrial Revolution Domestic hand labor to machine and factory output Immigration Cheap and exploitable labor Impact of Transportation Revolution Made the transition to the market society possible Reduction in time and money it took to move heavy goods. Growth of Cities Exports increased 6 fold and imports tripled Urban population grew The north and west developed into a self-sustaining internal market Rural and Urban Market exchange

Immigration Political turmoil and Famine brought Massive immigration
Irish Potato Famine 2.5 Million (30% of Ireland’s population) German immigration 4.2 Million Provided Cheap/Exploitable Labor Used to scapegoat political, economic & social issues A surge of immigrants swelled the size of the cities after the 1830s, at Mid century most of NY was foreign born and in all thee port cities of the northeast immigrants dominated the manufacturing work force, most were Irish and German. (7 million over the last 3 centuries) Irish helped did canal systems, lay RR track, pave streets and lay water lines. Subject initially to anti-catholic sentiment initially they were not particularly resented B/c their labor was needed, until the massive immigration following the famine The economic and political upheavals in Europe during the 1840s spurred mass migration. Catholic peasants from Ireland, dominated by their protestant English land lords eked out a living as tenant farmers. The potato famine between brought another 1.5 million into America (1 million died of starvation). The Irish received the worst and lowest paying jobs as rag pickers, porters, day laborers and unskilled factory hands. The Women became the laundresses and maids for the Urban middle class. Germans came to America to escape poor harvests and political turmoil, far more Germans had capital to purchase land when they arrived (4.2 million ) The influx of immigrants after the mid-1840s and advances in the steam engines provided the cheap labor and power that made cities manufacturing centers. It was the final ingredient in the expansion of Industrialization during the mid 1800’s. The largest cities in the early 19th C were the Atlantic Ports: NY, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Boston.

“The Bog Trotters” Cartoonists often chose Irish over Germans as subjects of their political commentary. An insulting name for Irish peasants, the term created an image of Irish peasants as carefree imbeciles. This depiction also suggested that they dances, drank and were irresponsible Class project: imagine you are in New York in 1855 you are unemployed and have a family to take care of. You blame your unemployment situation on new immigrants.

The Poor House from Galway
“The Irish fill our prisons, our poor houses, scratch a convict or a pauper, and the chances are that you tickle the skin of an Irish Catholic. Putting them on a boat and sending them home would end crime in this country” The Chicago Post wrote,

The Great Fear of the Period That Uncle Sam is Swallowed by Foreigners
The Problem Solved

Thomas Nast Cartoon, 1870 Expresses the worry that the Irish Catholics threatened American Freedom

Early Industry The northeast led Americans industrial revolution
Household and small workshop production Putting-out system Local merchants furnished or put out raw materials to rural households and paid at a piece rate for the labor that converted those raw materials into manufacture products. The supplying merchant then marketed and sold these goods. The northeast led Americans industrial revolution. In 1815 it had the largest cities, the most developed capital markets, the technological skills of artisans and the greatest supply of available labor The household and the small workshop were the sites of manufacturing in Jefferson’s America. Wider markets for manufacturing began to develop in the late 18th century with the Putting-out system. Local merchants furnished or put out raw materials to rural households and paid at a piece rate for the labor that converted those raw materials into manufacture products. The supplying merchant then marketed and sold these goods. In the cities and larger towns most manufacturing was done by artisans, skilled craftsmen who were also known as mechanics. They worked in their own shops with their own tools and produced their own goods. Status of Artisan, skilled workers, independence, prestige, quality of work.

Artisan Status Status of Artisan: skilled workers Independence
Owned tools of production Owned shops Managed time and produce skilled workers Independence prestige

Shoe Makers Daguerreotype of shoemakers
Shoemakers, like those shown in this early-nineteenth-century daguerreotype, were among the first skilled craftspeople to organize into unions in order to bargain collectively with employers. They lost their first contest in a New York court, but eventually won a case in Massachusetts that provided the precedent for unionization among skilled workers.

Industrial Espionage Slater’s Rhode Island System
Water powered spinning machine Richard Arkwright (inventor) Samuel Slater Imported the plans to Patuxet, Rhode Island The Rhode Island System The countryside factory towns Labor of Farmer’s daughters Mill Villages The American textile industry originated in industrial espionage. Richard Arkwright in 1769 had invented a water power machine that spun yarn and thread. One of his apprentices, Samuel Slater memorized the structure and mechanics and brought it from England to Patuxet, Rhode Island in 1790. Originally Slater’s mill did satisfy the requirements of supplementing landed families incomes. Soon mills sprung up over the countryside with the mill owners building whole villages surrounded by company owned farmland they rented to husbands and fathers of their mill workers. By the 1820s he got rid of the outworkers and bought power looms that transformed the villages into disciplined self-contained factory towns that turned raw cotton into finished cloth. Landless impoverished families soon took their place and created the first Mill town. He asked plant managers questions and made secret drawings of the machines he saw. He returned to Boston to established the Boston manufacturing company or Boston Associates in Built the first Mill in Waltham Massachusetts and expanded into other towns near Boston during the 1820s . Throughout the 1820 and 1830s most mill hands remained young farm daughters. Wages were little over a dollar per week after deductions from room ad board. It was more than they could have earned doing piece-work in the home or as domestics and gave them a sense of financial independence. Though initially recruited the daughters of new England farmers, Irish immigrant labor soon replaced them. By the 1830s and 1840s, the northern United States was experiencing a full blown market revolution. Cities and towns provided financing, retailing and manufacturing while commercial farms traded food for what cities made.

Waltham System Lowell’s Waltham System Boston Associates Co. 1813
Machines that turned raw cotton into finished cloth Francis Cabot Lowell Toured factories in England in 1811 Boston Associates Co. 1813 Fully mechanized By the 1830s - Unskilled, female labor

Mill Girl Daguerreotype of a young mill girl, c. 1850, Massachusetts
This young girl probably worked at a mill in Waltham or Lowell during the late 1840s. Her swollen and rough hands contrast with her youth, neat dress, and carefully tied, beribboned hair. Her hands suggest that she worked, as did most 12- and 13-year-olds, as a warper, straightening the strands of cotton or wool as they entered the looms.

Middlesex Company Woolen Mills 1848
Middlesex Company Woolen Mills, Lowell, Massachusetts, c. 1848, artist unknown In the 1830s an unknown artist painted Middlesex Company Woolen Mills, portraying the hulking mass of the mill buildings. The company organized all the manufacturing processes at a single location, in Lowell, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack River. (Museum of American Textile History) Mill women worked 6dys/wk from dawn to dusk for low wages. Between women at Lowell turned out to protest the wage reductions in demonstrations that were the largest strikes in American History up until that time

Urban Industry Industrial Revolution and the Widening gap between the rich and the poor By 1835 cities were serving commercial agriculture and factory towns that produced for largely rural domestic market. Creation of the Urban working class In the cities there was little concern for creating a classless industrial society. Industrial Revolution and the Widening gap between the rich and the poor By 1835 cities were serving commercial agriculture and factory towns that produced for largely rural domestic market. The market revolution in the country-side had produced the beginnings of industry and the greatest period of growth in US history. Urban Industry & the creation of the Urban working class In the cities there was little concern for creating a classless industrial society. The vastly wealthy men of finance, a new middle class that bought and sold an ever growing range of consumer goods lived together in communities that unabashedly recognized the reality of social class.

Stratification of Class Hierarchy
The richest men importers and exporters and took control of banks and insurance companies and made great fortunes in urban real estate Growing middle class Commercial Class Wholesale and retail merchants, lawyers, salesmen, auctioneers, bookkeepers and accountants clerks on the bottom creating a white-collar class to cater to the new emerging consumer society. The richest men were the seaport merchants who carried on as importers and exporters and took control of banks and insurance companies and made great fortunes in urban real estate. Below the old mercantile elite were the growing middle class of wholesale and retail merchants, master craftsmen who had transformed themselves into manufacturers, and an army of lawyers, salesmen, auctioneers, clerks, bookkeepers and accountants who took care of the paperwork for a new market society. The commercial class had its own stratification with clerks on the bottom creating a white-collar class to cater to the new emerging consumer society.

Middle Class Ideal Consumer goods Symbols of their middle class status
Notions of gentility distinction between manual and non manual work Family group daguerreotype, 1852 This daguerreotype, taken about 1852, reveals the little things so important to etching a middle-class family's social status: curtains; a wall hanging; a piano with scrolled legs; a small desk with elegantly curved legs; a pet; ladies posed in nonproductive but "improving" activities (music, reading); and a young man seemingly staring into space--and perhaps pondering how to pay for it all. (George Eastman House)

“The Hands” Producers of consumer goods The “hands” Growth in Demand
Growth in Working class Shoemaking, tailoring and the building trade were divided into skilled and semiskilled segments and farmed out to subcontractors who could turn a profit by cutting labor costs those people who produced the consumer goods (the “hands”) were growing more numerous. While textiles had become mechanized by the 1850s, most clothes, shoes, brooms, hats, books, furniture and other goods that were available in country stores and city shops were made by hand. City merchants and master craftsmen met the growing demand by hiring some workers. Shoemaking, tailoring and the building trade were divided into skilled and semiskilled segments and farmed out to subcontractors who could turn a profit by cutting labor costs. This led to the creation of an urban working class. Urban industry New York: Ready made clothing trade Cheap manufactured cloth Cheap, female labor Southern Markets “negro cottons” Western Markets Dungarees & hickory shirts By 1815 the wealthy bought tailor made clothing while everyone else wore clothes made at home. The first clothing sweat shops developed in New York, the first shoe sweat shops developed in Massachusetts. In the 1820s the availability of cheap manufactured cloth and an expanding pool of cheap female labor, with the creation of the southern and western markets, transformed New York city into the in to the center of the national market in ready made clothes. The first bid market was “negro Cottons”

Rising Standard of Living
After 1815 per capita income doubled living standards rose Houses: larger, better furnished, heated. Food: more plentiful and varied The cost: Half of all adult white males without land wealth had become more concentrated. In 1800 the richest 10 percent of Americans owned 40-50% of the national wealth, by the 1850s they owned 70%. In the cities they owned over 80%. Growing inequality and new Classes As the economy expanded after 1815 per capita income doubled, living standards for most Americans improved. Houses for those who could afford them became larger, better furnished and heated. Food was more plentiful and varied and factory made consumer goods made life easier and more comfortable. The cost: Half of all adult white males were property less, wealth had become more concentrated and extremes of wealth and poverty eroded the Jeffersonian ideal of the republic. In 1800 the richest 10 percent of Americans owned 40-50% of the national wealth, by the 1850s they owned 70%. In the cities they owned over 80%.

Evangelical Crusades Early 19th C ministers bolstered doctrine of separate spheres Clerical endorsement of female moral superiority in exchange for women’s activism Decline of clerical authority in society Opposed forces that seemed to act against women’s interests Materialism Intemperance Licentiousness

Redefinition of female character
Appropriate to elevated status Home idealized as bastion of feminine values Piety, morality, affection, self-sacrifice Iconography of Motherhood Elevated importance & significance of the home Making of a middle class Polar opposites: Separate Spheres Women’s sphere – a moral issue Democratization of “The Lady” Class status Staying at home, devoting self to family and developing feminine traits\ Denial of lady status: Immigrant women Poor farm women Black women Poor native born women Factory women Denial of status of lady also meant the denial of the status of “respectable” Disrespecting non-ladies acceptable Targets of exploitation

Cult of Domesticity Seperation of “work” and “home”
Biological difference A construct that determined separate social roles for men and women. Men: strong, aggressive and ambitious, intelligent Place in business and politics. Women: Kind, pure, emotional, moral Place to preserve religion and morality in the home and family Cult of Domesticity New sense of class-consciousness. Middle class fathers left for their jobs while mothers governed households. Reduction in size of families 1820s ministers and female writers elevated the family role of middle class women into a cult of domesticity The separation of work and home constituted the first step in the evolving sense of class-consciousness. Middle class fathers left for their jobs while mothers governed households. Homes became places of material comfort for the rising middle class. Families became smaller, children were no longer an economic asset as they had been as workers on the family farm. Beginning in the 1820s ministers and female writers elevated the family role of middle class women into a cult of domesticity. These idealized conception of womanhood insisted that the biological difference of Gods natural order, determined separate social roles for men and women. Men: Characterized as strong, aggressive and ambitious, men naturally belonged in the competitive world of business and politics. Women’s task was to preserve religion and morality in the home and family. They possessed moral purity necessary for rearing virtuous children and preserving the home as a refuge from the outside world.

Purity Crusade Traditionally: both men and women wee sexual beings, women weaker willed, lustful and licentious and insatiable Purity Crusade: women lacked sexual feeling, lust and carnality became a part of men’s sphere Etiquette manuals counseled to deter male advances “women’s other institution” Frances Trollope (England) 1830s “I have never seen a country where the religion had so strong a hold upon the women, or slighter upon the men” 3:2 converts women Women took an active role in religion Men continued to control the boundaries

Professional Medicine & Women’s Sexuality
Women were Asexual beings Defined by their sex & sexual roles, yet did not desire it Dr Alcott, “Women, as is well known, in a natural state…seldom if ever makes any of those advances, which clearly indicates sexual desire and for this very plain reason, she does not feel them.” Only “low” women suffered from the indignity of sexual desire Long periods of abstinence proper Masturbation damaged future offspring, and caused “mania” and “idiocy” on the guilty party Chronic invalidism among women Middle class culture idealized female debility 1800’s doctors came close the defining femaleness as an illness itself

Lowered Standard of Living
First Slums appeared in the mid 1800s Huge influx of immigrants and creation of exploitable labor force Overcrowded Housing Contaminated water supplies Lack of Sewage Disease and high mortality rates Cholera and Typhus The first Slums appeared in the mid 1800s due to huge influx of immigrants and creation of exploitable labor force. Small, Flimsy, wooden structures, often crammed into a back alley, housed the working poor in cramped, fetid conditions. Backyard privies supplemented chamber pots that overflowed in heavy rain and often contaminated private wells, the source of drinking water. Garbage and animal waste accumulated on streets, scavenged by packs of roving hogs. The overcrowded and unsanitary conditions led to disease and high mortality rates (Cholera and Typhus) Manufacturing towns and cities (coal) led to extreme pollution and illness.

Five Points District Five Points District, artist unknown, c. 1829
Working-class neighborhoods like the infamous Five Points District in New York, shown in this anonymous 1829 picture, were filthy, unhealthy, and crime-ridden. Reformers sought to help by changing workers' habits and morals, but seldom addressed their economic plight.

Limiting the Spread of Industrialization to the Rest of the World
Deliberate policy of preventing the growth of mechanized industry. India : one of the worlds greatest exporters of cotton cloth produced by hand labor. under the control of the British East Indian Company. British textiles displaced thousands of Indian Spinners and handloom weavers Before 1870 the industrialization that was transforming western and central Europe and the US did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. European states pursued a deliberate policy of preventing the growth of mechanized industry. A good example is India. Indian had become one of the worlds greatest exporters of cotton cloth produced by hand labor. In the first half of the 19th C, much of Indian fell under the control of the British Est. Indian Company. With British Control came inexpensive British factory produced textiles and soon thousands of Indian Spinners and handloom weavers were unemployed. 42

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
Population Growth and Urbanization Rapid population growth 1850 European population 266 million Rapid urbanization 50% of British population lived in cities Miserable living conditions Tenement housing, 5 or 6 to a bed Lack of sewage or sanitation Coal blackened towns and cities Deaths outnumbered births 43

Social Impact: Industrial Middle Class
People who constructed factories, purchased machines, established markets Profit incentive Value in the accumulation of surplus of wealth Sought to reduce disparity between themselves and the landed elite Separate themselves from the laboring classes below them The Rise of industrial capitalism produced a new kind of middle class, the Bourgeoisie was not new, existing since the middle ages (The Burgher was simply a town dweller, active as a merchant, official, artisan, lawyer or man of letters) The term developed to apply to people involved in commerce, industry and banking as well as professionals such as teachers, physicians, and government officials.

Industrial Working Class
Proletariat – the factory workers and majority of the working class Wretched working conditions 12 – 16 hour work week/ 6 days a week ½ hour for lunch and dinner No job security No minimum wage Hot, dirty, dusty and unhealthy conditions 45

Women and Children in the Mines
Men dug coal, while women and children hauled coal carts on rails to the lift Cave –ins, explosions, gas fumes Cramped tunnels, 4 ft high Ruined lungs and overall health Women and children were often employed in the factories and mines of the early nineteenth century. These illustrations are from the Report of the Children’s Employment Commission in Great Britain in The top image shows a woman dragging a cart loaded with coal behind her. Both images show the trying conditions under which both women and children worked in the early Industrial Revolution. In 1842, the British Mines Act forbade the use of children younger than thirteen and women of any age in the mines. © SSPL/The Image Works

Women and Children in the Mines
Women and children were often employed in the factories and mines of the early nineteenth century. These illustrations are from the Report of the Children’s Employment Commission in Great Britain in The lower image shows a boy walking backward in a mine, pulling a cart filled with coal. Both images show the trying conditions under which both women and children worked in the early Industrial Revolution. In 1842, the British Mines Act forbade the use of children younger than thirteen and women of any age in the mines. Child Labor: exploited in textile mills and coals mines Paid 1/6 to 1/3 the wage of a man Women paid half that of a man or les © SSPL/The Image Works

Socialism Early 1800’s conditions of the slums, mines and factories
gave rise to social movements that demanded an improvement in workers conditions Early Socialism (Utopian Socialists) product of intellectuals who believed in the equity of all people Wanted to replace competition with cooperation in industry

Utopian Socialist Robert Owen, A British Cotton Manufacturer
believed that humans would show their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. New Lanark, Scotland, he transformed a squalid factory town into a flourishing healthy community New Harmony, Indiana, USA (1820s) , failed Robert Own, A British Cotton Manufacturer was a utopian socialist, he believed that humans would show their true natural goodness if hey lived in a cooperative environment. At New Lanark in Scotland, he transformed a squalid factory town into a flourishing healthy community When he tried to create such a cooperative community in New Harmony, Indiana, USA (1820s) it failed

Trade Unions An organized movement for change
Goals to improve working conditions Gain decent wages Associations were formed by skilled workers Some conducted strikes to win gains for workers Iron works Coal miners

National Trade Union 1820s and 1830s: Movement to create a national trade union The Amalgamated Society of Engineers (1851) Britain Won generous unemployment benefits in return for small weekly payment

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity
Focus Questions: What was the Second industrial revolution, and what effects did it have on economic and social life? What were he main ideas of Karl Marx, and what role did they play in politics and the union movement in the late 19th C ad early twentieth centuries?

An Age of Progress ‘‘The most striking evidence of progress during the reign is the ever increasing speed which the discoveries of physical science have forced into everyday life. Steam and electricity have conquered time and space to a greater extent during the last sixty years than all the preceding six hundred years witnessed.’’ The Second Industrial Revolution led many Europeans to believe that most human problems would be solved through scientific achievements. This illustration is from a special issue of the Illustrated London News celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria in On the left are scenes from 1837, when Victoria came to the British throne; on the right are scenes from The vivid contrast underscored the magazine’s conclusion: ‘‘The most striking evidence of progress during the reign is the ever increasing speed which the discoveries of physical science have forced into everyday life. Steam and electricity have conquered time and space to a greater extent during the last sixty years than all the preceding six hundred years witnessed.’’ Photo courtesy private collection

New Products after 1870 After 1870 the western world experienced a dynamic boom in material prosperity. New industries New sources of energy The new goods of the second industrial revolution All this led people to believe that their material progress reflected human progress. The Second Industrial Revolution led many Europeans to believe that most human problems would be solved through scientific achievements. After 1870 the western world experienced a dynamic boom in material prosperity. New industries New sources of energy The new goods of the second industrial revolution All this led people to believe that their material progress reflected human progress. New Products: after 180 * Substitution of steel for iron New era of construction Electricity by 1910 hydroelectric power stations and coal fired steam generating plans enabled homes and factories in whole neighborhoods to be tied in to a single common sourse of power New inventions Light bulb Telephone Radio streetcars and subways Conveyor belts, cranes, machines, Internal combustion engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation and gave rist to ocean liners as well as airplanes and automobiles Henry T Ford – revolutionized the automotive industry with the mass production of the Mold T Kitty Hawk, the (1903) brothers Orville ad Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed wing airplane 1919 first passenger air service established New Products after 1870 Substitution of steel for iron by 1910 hydroelectric power stations coal fired steam generating plans enabled homes and factories in whole neighborhoods to be tied in to a single common source of power

New Industry transformed American from Agrarian nation to Industrial power Technology Steam engines Electricity Edison’s light bulb Radio streetcars and subways Conveyor belts, cranes, machines, Modern Corporations Industrial labor Exploitation Unionization

Henry T Ford – revolutionized the automotive industry with the mass production of the Model T
Kitty Hawk, (1903) brothers Orville ad Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed wing airplane 1919 first passenger air service established s 11

Technology Advancements in: Railroads Steel Mills Telephone
Electricity: light & generator Typewriter Elevators and skyscrapers Entertainment: phonographs and motion picture Household items: refrigerators, washing machines Internal Combustion engine leads to automobiles and first flight (Wright Brothers) Internal combustion engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation and gave rise to ocean liners as well as airplanes and automobiles Henry T Ford – revolutionized the automotive industry with the mass production of the Model T 6 (c) 2003 Wadsworth Group All rights reserved

New Patterns Germany replaced Britain as the industrial leader of Europe. 1900 Europe divided into 2 economic zones Advanced industrial core with high standard of living Great Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Many Western part of Austro-Hungarian Empire, Northern Italy Little industrialized Southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Balkan Kingdoms and Russia

The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of the Nineteenth Century
steelmaking, electricity, petroleum, and chemicals spurred substantial economic growth and prosperity in western and central Europe sparked economic and political competition between Great Britain and Germany. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Second Industrial Revolution—in steelmaking, electricity, petroleum, and chemicals—had spurred substantial economic growth and prosperity in western and central Europe; it also sparked economic and political competition between Great Britain and Germany.

Spread of Industrialization
Governments of Russia and Japan fostered industrialization Russia, 1890s, Sergei Whitte, Minister of Finance Rail road construction Modern steel and coal industry 1900 4th largest producer of steel Half of the worlds oil production Japan Financed industries, built RR, Universal education system based on science Key industries of tea, silk, armaments shipbuilding

Women and Work: New Job Opportunities
Reality vs. Rhetoric of Ideal family and expectations of womanhood Myth of domestic spheres Reality of women needing employment to support families Only opportunity available was low wage work of labor part time in sweat shops Reality vs. Rhetoric of Ideal family and expectations of womanhood Myth of domestic spheres Reality of women needing employment to support families Only opportunity available was low wage work of labor part time in sweat shops 2nd industrial revolution opened the door to new jobs for women. Service, white collar job the new stratified commercial class. Increased demand for white collar workers at relatively low wages coupled with a shortage of male workers led employers to hire women Big Businesses, retail shops: Clerks, sectaries, file clerks, sales clerks Expansion of Government services opened opportunities for women to be secretaries and telephone operators and to take jobs in health and social services Compulsory education necessitated more teachers Development of modern hospital services opened the way for an increase in nurses Women remained limited in what careers they could pursue – lack of equal education New jobs filled by working class women who saw the job as an opportunity to escape from physical labor of lower class world

2nd industrial revolution opened the door to new jobs for women. Service, white collar job the new stratified commercial class. Increased demand for white collar workers at relatively low wages coupled with a shortage of male workers led employers to hire women Big Businesses, retail shops: Clerks, secretaries, file clerks, sales clerks

New opportunities Expansion of Government services secretaries and telephone operators health and social services Compulsory education necessitated more teachers Development of modern hospital services opened the way for an increase in nurses Women remained limited in what careers they could pursue – lack of equal education

Organizing working classes
After 1870 people began to organize Conditions of labor class Socialist political parties Socialist labor unions 1848, Karl Marx & Fredreich Engels had developed a theory that explained social struggle, Communist Manifesto. After 1870 working people began to organize, 1848 Karl Marx had developed a theory that explained social struggle. He and Fredriech Engels wrote communist manifesto.

Marxism Marxist theory:
argued that history is a history of class struggle between the working people who depended on others the means of production, and the oppressors who owned the means of production and thus had the power to control government and society

Marxism The Bourgeoisie and the proletariat
predicted that eventually the two groups would break into open revolution For a while the proletariat would form a dictatorship in order to organized the means of production the end result would be a classless society since classes themselves arose from economic difference that have been abolished. The state which he perceived as an instrument of bourgeois interests would whither away

‘‘Proletarians of the World, Unite’’
To improve their working and living conditions, many industrial workers, inspired by the ideas of Karl Marx, joined working-class or socialist parties. Pictured here is a socialist-sponsored poster that proclaims in German the closing words of The Communist Manifesto: ‘‘Proletarians of the World, Unite!’’ To improve their working and living conditions, many industrial workers, inspired by the ideas of Karl Marx, joined working-class or socialist parties. Pictured here is a socialist-sponsored poster that proclaims in German the closing words of The Communist Manifesto: ‘‘Proletarians of the World, Unite!’’ © Photo courtesy private collection

Socialist Parties Working class leaders after 1870 began to pick up on Marx’s theory. The German Social Democratic Party, 1875 espoused revolutionary Marxist Rhetoric we organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag or lower house of parliament. By 1912 it became the largest party in Germany due to its work to improve conditions for the working class Working class leaders after 1870 began to pick up on Marx’s theory. The German Social Democratic Party merged in 1875 and espoused revolutionary Marxist Rhetoric we organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag or lower house of parliament. By 1912 it became the largest party in Germany due to its work to improve conditions for the working class The Second International was an association of national socialist groups that would fight against capitalism world wide: May Day or May first was de an international labor holiday due to the associations coordinated actions

Socialist Parties The Second International was an association of national socialist groups that would fight against capitalism world wide: May Day or May 1st International labor holiday due to the associations coordinated actions

Revisionism & Trade Unions
Marxist partied divided over the issue of revisionism. Pure Marxist’s : believed in the imminent collapse of capitalism ad the need for socialist ownership of the means of production. Revisionists: rejected revolutionary socialism and argued that workers must organize mass political parties and work together with other progressive elements to gain reform. With suffrage, could achieve their aims through democratic channels Revolution through democratic means, not by revolution would achieve the desired goal o socialism Marxist partied divided over the issue of revisionism. Pure Marxists believed in the imminent collapse of capitalism ad the need for socialist ownership of the means of production. Revisionists: rejected revolutionary socialism and argued that workers must organize mass political parties and work together with other progressive elements to gain reform. Having won the right to vote, workers were in a better position than ever to achieve their aims through democratic channels, evolution through democratic means, not by revolution would achieve the desired goal o socialism

Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism
Focus Question: What were the major ideas associated with conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism What role did each ideology play in Europe between 1800 and 1870? What were the causes of the revolutions of 1848, and why did these revolutions fail? Another force working for evolutionary rather than revolutionary socialism was the development of trade unions In Great Britain unions won the right to strike in the 1870s. Soon after the mass of workers in factories were organized of trade unions in order to use the instrument of the strike 1900 re were 2 million workers in British trade unions, 14 yrs later there were almost 4 million

A meeting of the Congress of Vienna 1814
After the defeat of Napoleon European rulers moved to restore much of the old order. Goal of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia final peace settlement after the Napoleonic wars. © Scala/Art Resource, NY

Conservative Order The leader of the congress, Austrian Prime Minister Prince Klemen’s von Metternich claimed he was guided by the principle of legitimacy. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe he considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs ho would preserve traditional institutions. Had already been done in France After the defeat of Napoleon European rulers moved to restore much of the old order. This was the goal of the great power, GB, Austria, Prussia and Russia when they met at the congress of Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement after the Napoleonic wars. The leader of the congress, Austrian prime minister Prince Klemens von Metternich claimed he was guided by the principle of legitimacy. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe he considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs ho would preserve traditional institutions. (already done in France) The peace arrangements were the beginning of a conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Metternich and his kind were the representative of the ideology known as conservatism: favored obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, were unwilling to accept either liberal demands for civil liberties and representative of governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated byte French Revolutionary era. This political philosophy was supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, ad revived churches: these forces were dominant after 1815

Conservative Order Conservatism:
favored obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, unwilling to accept either liberal demands for civil liberties and representative of governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French Revolutionary era. Metternich and his kind were the representative of the ideology known as

Conservative Backlash
The peace arrangements were the beginning of a conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. This political philosophy of Conservatism supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, revived churches forces were dominant after 1815

Concert of Europe Method used by the great powers to maintain the new status quo Concert of Europe Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and later France agreed to meet periodically in conference to take steps that would maintain the peace in Europe. adopted the principle of intervention, asserting the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore the legitimate monarchs to their throne.

Europe After the Congress of Vienna, 1815
The Congress of Vienna imposed order on Europe based on the principles of monarchical government and a balance of power. Monarchs were restored in France, Spain, and other states recently under Napoleon’s control, and much territory changed hands, often at the expense of small and weak states.

Forces for Change: Liberalism
people should be from as much restraint as possible owed much to the enlightenment of the 18th C. and the American and French revolutions Common set of beliefs: protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of the people, should be guaranteed b a written document Conservative governments worked to maintain the old order, however, Liberalism and nationalism emerged or continued to be powerful forces of change. Liberalism (people should be from as much restraint as possible) owed much to the enlightenment of the 18th C. and the American and French revolutions Common set of beliefs: protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of the people, should be guaranteed b a written document Equality before the law Freedom of assembly, speech and press Freedom from arbitrary arrest Religious toleration for all, separation of church and state Demanded the right of peaceful opposition of government in and out of parliament and the making of laws by a representative assembly or legislature elected by qualified voters Many believed in a constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with limits on the powers of government in order to prevent despotism and in written constitutions that would guaranteed these rights Liberals were not democrats: they thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men who owned property Adopted by middle class men, the industrial bourgeoisie who favored voting rights for themselves so they could share power with the land owning societies

Civil Liberties Equality before the law
Freedom of assembly, speech and press Freedom from arbitrary arrest Religious toleration for all Separation of church and state Demanded the right of peaceful opposition of government in and out of parliament making of laws by a representative assembly or legislature elected by qualified voters

Liberalism Many believed in a constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with limits on the powers of government to prevent despotism and in written constitutions that would guaranteed these rights Liberals were not democrats: they thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men who owned property Adopted by middle class men, Industrial bourgeoisie who favored voting rights for themselves share power with the land owning societies

Forces for Change: Nationalism
Arose out an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. This community is called a nation, and the primary political loyalty of individuals would be a nation. become a popular force for change following the French Revolution. believed that each nationality should have its own government.

Nationalism German’s who were not united, wanted national unity in a German nation state with one central government. Subject peoples such as Hungarians wanted the right to establish their own autonomy rather than be subject to a German minority in the multinational Austrian empire.

Nationalism Threat to the existing political order.
A united Germany for example would upset the balance of power established at Vienna in 1815 An independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian empire. European states were multinational, conservatives tried to repress the radical threat of nationalism.

Revolution and Reform, 1832-1848
Forces of Liberalism, nationalism and the second industrial revolution coalesced, in 1830 France Bourbon Monarch Overthrown created a limited constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe Great Britain avoided upheaval by passing a Reform Bill 1832 increased the numbers of male voters, primarily benefitting the upper middle class who favored liberal ideas Supporters of liberalism played a primary role in the revolution in France and British reform in 1832, Forces of Liberalism, nationalism and the second industrial revolution coalesced, in 1830 France, it erupted as a revolution that overthrew the Bourbon Monarch and created a limited constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe, called the bourgeois monarch because political support came from the upper middle class. Great Britain voided upheaval by passing a Reform Bill 1832 that increased the numbers of male voters, primarily benefitting the upper middle class who favored liberal ideas Supporters of liberalism played a primary role in the revolution in French and British reform in 1832, nationalism was the crucial force in 3 other revolutions Belgium: had been annexed to the Dutch Republic in 1815 to create a larger state to act as a barrier against French Aggression, rebelled against the Dutch and established an independent constitutional monarch 2 other revolutions failed: Russian forces crushed the Poles attempt to liberate themselves from foreign domination, while Austrian troops intervened in Italy to uphold reactionary governments in a number of Italian states. But the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow and gave rise to new revolutions in 1848 84

Revolution and Reform 1848 Nationalism was the crucial force in 3 other revolutions Belgium: had been annexed to the Dutch Republic in 1815 to create a larger state to act as a barrier against French Aggression, rebelled against the Dutch and established an independent constitutional monarch

Revolution and Reform 2 other revolutions failed:
Russian forces crushed the Poles attempt to liberate themselves from foreign domination, Austrian troops intervened in Italy to uphold reactionary governments in a number of Italian states. Liberalism and Nationalism continued to grow Sparked new revolution

Revolutions of 1848 Revolution in Central Europe
Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in other countries Internal problems provided kindling: industrial and agricultural depression, refusal to extend suffrage Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in other countries Internal problems provided kindling: industrial and agri depression, refusal to extend suffrage Government of King Louis-Philippe refused to make changes, opposition grew and finally overthrew the monarchy of Feb 24, 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans established a provisional government and called for the election by universal male suffrage of a “constituent assembly” and would draw up a new constitution. New constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848 established the 2nd Republic with a single legislature elected to 3 year terms by universal male suffrage to a 4 yr term. IN the elections for the presidency held in deck 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of original, won and within 4 years would establish an authoritarian regime

Central Europe Government of King Louis-Philippe refused to respond to needs of people opposition grew and finally overthrew the monarchy of Feb 24, 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans established a provisional government and called for the election by universal male suffrage of a “constitutional assembly” and would draw up a new constitution.

Constitutional Assembly
New constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848 established the 2nd Republic with a single legislature elected to 3 year terms by universal male suffrage to a 4 yr term. In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of original, won and within 4 years would establish an authoritarian regime

Modern patterns of world history: 1800 – 1945

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