1. Anatomy of the Sensory Organs

2. Sensory Function and Vision…

3. The General Senses… Sensory receptors
specialized cells that monitor the environment and relay information to the CNS.
Free nerve endings are the simplest type: they are the dendrites of sensory neurons
Complex receptors (eyes) are housed in organs
Some receptors respond to only one kind of stimulus

4. All sensory receptors send info to the CNS via an action potential…
At the CNS, info is routed according to the stimulus and its location
The stronger the stimulus, the higher the frequency of action potentials
Some receptors adapt, that is their sensitivity to a stimulus is reduced if the stimulus is continually applied (smell)
The RAS can heighten or reduce awareness of sensory information

5. General versus special senses…
General sense receptors included those for temperature, pain, pressure, touch, vibration & proprioception (body position)
These receptors are very simple in nature

6. “Special” senses
Special senses monitor vision, hearing, olfaction, gustation, and equilibrium through specialized sense organs
These sense organs are highly specialized

7. “General sense” receptors…
Are simple, found everywhere and are classified by their stimulus:
Nociceptors – sensitive to pain
Thermoreceptors – respond to heat
Mechanoreceptors–respond to touch/pressure
Chemoreceptors – response to chemicals
Only 1% of the info they provide ever reaches the cerebral cortex (our consciousness)

8. Nociceptors/Pain receptors:
found in joints, periosteum of bone and skin
do not adapt!
2 types of axons carry the painful sensations:
Fast pain sensations (localized, shooting pain) are carried by myelinated axons
Slow pain sensations (generalized, aching pain) are carried by unmyelinated axons: it is difficult to pinpoint the stimulus location
Referred pain is the perception of pain coming from a body area that is NOT stimulated:
Pain originating in viscera is felt on body surfaces

9. Referred pain:
For example, pain produced by a heart attack may feel as if it is coming from the arm because sensory information from the heart and the arm converge on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord.

10. Thermoreceptors…
Free nerve endings in skin, muscle, liver, and hypothalamus
they adapt quickly
Cold receptors respond to temps <50
4X’s as numerous as warm receptors
Warm receptors respond to temps >113
Both are structurally identical

11. Mechanoreceptors…
Membrane distortion opens mechanically regulated ion channels to create impulses. There are 3 classes:
Tactile – respond to touch
Baroreceptors – respond to pressure
Proprioceptors – respond to changes in body position

12. Tactile receptors… Merkel’s – fine touch and pressure
May be simple or complex, superficial or deep, fine (provide detailed information) or crude (provide little information)
Merkel’s – fine touch and pressure
Pacinian – deep pressure
Meissner’s – fine touch and pressure in select areas
Ruffini – pressure or distortion in deep dermal layers

13. Baroreceptors are….
stretch receptors that monitor changes in organ pressure in distensible organs
rapidly adapting
Generate an AP from their dendrites when organs are stretched or change position
They monitor BP, respiration, digestion, and urinary control

14. Chemoreceptors… Only respond to dissolved chemicals
Rapidly adapting: found in olfaction, taste & the CNS at:
Medulla – receptors are sensitive to pH/CO2 changes in CSF– trigger respiratory adjustments
Aortic/Carotid bodies – sensitive to changes in pH/CO2/O2 blood levels – trigger adjustments in respiration and cardiovascular activity

15. Proprioceptors…. Monitor joint position & muscle contraction
DO NOT ADAPT
Structurally complex – are 2 types
Tendon organs – monitor tendon strain
Muscle spindles – monitor muscle length
Most information from these receptors is monitored subconsciously
Are vital for normal skeletal motor function

16. Olfaction -The Sense of Smell
Consists of paired olfactory organs made of epithelium containing olfactory receptors, supporting cells & stem cells
the receptor cells are highly modified neurons (chemoreceptors)
Contains olfactory glands that produce a multifunctional mucus
Sensory Pathway: olf.epithelium>olf.bulbs>olf.tracts>cortex

17. The olfactory organs…

18. Gustation….taste
Taste buds are organs containing gustatory & supporting cells that lie within papillae
Chemicals contact taste hairs which change the MP of taste cells & leads to an AP in the sensory neuron
4 primary taste sensations – sweet, salt, sour, bitter
Sensory Pathway: sensory receptors>medulla> thalamus>primary sensory cortex

19. A complex sensory organ: the eye.
is surrounded by accessory structures that act to protect, lubricate, and support it
is a light, compact, durable, and highly specialized hollow organ that weighs about 8 oz and measures 1 inch in diameter.
is divided into anterior (aqueous) & posterior (vitreous) cavities.
its walls are made of 3 “tunics”

20. Accessory structures of the eye…
eyelids (palpebrae)
eyelashes & brows
exocrine glands
lacrimal apparatus
Conjunctiva
6 extrinsic occulomotor muscles:
the inferior, superior, lateral and medial rectus muscles
the superior and inferior oblique muscles

21. Eye anatomy….. http://www.macula.org/anatomy/eyeframe.html
The hollow eye is divided into 2 cavities:
An anterior cavity which contains aqueous humor
A posterior cavity which holds vitreous humor
Humors act to stabilize eye shape and provide nutrients

22. The Tunics of the eye… Fibrous - the sclera & anterior cornea
Vascular – contains blood vessels, lymphatics, choroid & intrinsic muscles of the iris &ciliary bodies (they support the lens)
Neural – the retina, it contains the rods and cones (photoreceptor cells), bipolar &ganglion cells

23. Retinal organization …
The retina is made of several cell layers:
Photoreceptor cells – rods lie along the periphery & cones lie at the back of the retina
Bipolar cells synapse with the rods and cones
Ganglion cells synapse with the bipolar cells
The axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve

24. Macula lutea – area on the retina where the visual image forms, it contains only cones with the greatest numbers at the fovea centralis
Optic Disc or “blind spot” is the area where the ganglion cell axons exit the eye to form the optic nerve

26. Other structures of the eye:
Lens – held in place by suspensory ligaments, it functions to focus the visual image onto the retina
Cornea – clear portion of the fibrous tunic it is contiguous with the sclera
Iris – part of the vascular tunic, it contains blood vessels, pigment, and 2 smooth muscle layers to control the width of the pupil.
Ciliary body – a thick region of the choroid that encircles the lens and supports the suspensory ligments of the lens

27. Accommodation- focusing an image on the retina by changing lens shape
light bends/refracts as it passes from 1 medium to another. In the eye it goes through the cornea, a. humor, lens, & v. humor. The refraction of light is constant through all but the lens
The lens changes shape to keep the image focused on the retina for greatest visual acquity
Accommodation occurs with response to light and to the distance of the object being viewed

28. The Physiology of Vision… How is it that we see?
Photoreceptors respond to visible light:
Rods – sensitive to photons (energy) but not their wavelength (color) allow for vision at night/dim light
The 3 types of Cones (green, red, blue) need bright light & are responsive to wavelength: they allow us to “see” color
Lack of functional cones = colorblindness

29. The visual pathway….
Photoreceptor stimulation
Bipolar cell activation
Stimulation of ganglion cell’s whose axons form the…
Optic nerve that cross at the diencephalon and goes to the thalamus that routes info to the visual cortex of occipital lobe and the reflex centers of brain stem
At the optic chiasm, a partial crossover of nerve fibers occurs