1. Energy from Fossil Fuels
CHAPTER 14
Energy from Fossil Fuels

2. Global primary energy supply

3. Coal Coal was substituted for wood fuel in the 1800s
Firewood for steam engines became scarce
It was used for steam engines, heating, cooking, and industrial processes
By 1920, coal provided 80% of all U.S. energy
Drawbacks of coal:
Smoke and fumes polluted cities
It is hazardous to mine and dirty to handle
Steam engines are bulky and hard to operate

4. Coal China is the world’s leading coal producer
Builds two plants/week for electricity
49% of U.S. electricity comes from coal-fired power plants
U.S. coal supplies should last another 200 years
Mining is hazardous
There are many coal-mining accidents and illnesses
Over 700 died from pneumoconiosis (CWP)—black lung disease

5. Strip mining removes mountaintops
Strip mining allows quick, complete access to coal veins
Dynamite breaks overlying areas
Giant power shovels remove overlying rocks and coal
Environmental effects include deforestation and burying streams, erosion, acid leaching, and mine wastes (which affect surface and ground water)
Federal regulations require reclamation (grading, replanting)
It takes decades for some areas to recover
Some arid areas may never recover

6. Oil Rules By the late 1800s oil provided an alternative to coal
Due to the internal combustion engine, drilling, and refinement of oil into fuels
Benefits of oil
It was more convenient and burned more cleanly
The internal combustion engine is much lighter than a steam engine
Oil is now the major energy source for the world
Coal still predominates in eastern Europe and China

7. Oil spills and drills
With millions of gallons of oil in constant transit, it is inevitable that spills will occur
In 1989, the Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons
2010 in the Gulf of Mexico--largest oil release to date
Drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is an ongoing political firefight. It could result in major ecological disruption at a high cost—and for a relatively minor amount of oil.

8. Natural gas Natural gas is found wherever you find crude oil
Natural gas consists mainly of methane, which produces carbon dioxide and water when burned
Burns more cleanly than coal or oil (but still gives off CO2)
Pipelines now allow it to be transported, instead of venting it to the atmosphere
It is used for heating, cooking, industry
Gas satisfies 24% (U.S.) and 21% (world) of energy demand

9. Electrical power production
Electrical power: the amount of work done by an electric current over a given time
Most energy we use comes from fossil fuels
Energy carrier: the electricity itself that transfers energy from a primary energy source (coal, water power) to the point of use
Electricity enables modern technological society
Computers, appliances, lights, the Internet
More than 33% of fossil fuel production is used to generate electricity in the U.S.

10. Turbogenerators
Generating electricity requires a primary energy source
Coal, oil, nuclear, solar—even geothermal energy
Those are used to boil water to produce steam, which drives a turbine (a sophisticated paddle wheel)
The turbine is coupled to a generator that stores and transmits the energy as electricity.
Turbogenerator: the turbine and generator
Burning gas drives the turbine directly
Windmills (wind generators) have wind-driven turbines
At a dam, falling water turns a turbine, generating hydroelectric power. This is CO2-free.

11. Electricity demand vs. supply
In the U.S., demand is rising faster than supply
Reserve capacity has declined to 15%
Summer heat waves are the greatest cause of sudden increased demand
Utilities are being pushed to the edge of their ability to provide electricity on demand
Another serious problem: antiquated systems controlling the power transmission grid, which connects power sources to users

12. Blackout
In 2008 the largest blackout in U.S. history left 50 million people in eight states and two Canadian provinces without power
It started when power lines brushed against tree branches
It cost the economies of the two countries $30 billion
A “smart grid” can prevent major blackouts
It monitors problems, reacts to trouble, and isolates troubled areas to prevent cascading failures
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security rates this as one of its highest priorities

13. Clean energy?
Electric power is clean and nonpolluting only at the point of use. Electric cars don’t directly emit CO2, but they use electricity—often that was produced by burning fossil fuels.
Electricity is an expensive way to heat homes
It is generated mainly from fossil fuels and nuclear
Coal-burning plants are the major source of U.S. electricity
Unfortunately, they contribute to the formation of acid rain and greenhouse gases
Nuclear energy is cleaner but distrusted
Potential for accidents, issues with the mining of uranium ore and the disposal of waste

14. Matching sources to uses
Some forms of energy do well in some uses but not others
Nuclear and coal will not reduce the demand for oil
Most transportation (cars, trucks, tractors, planes, trains) depends on oil for fuel

15. Energy flow Transportation equals 29% of U.S. energy use
Depends mainly on petroleum
Nuclear, coal, water power are used to produce electricity
Natural gas and oil are more versatile sources—they can be used for either electricity or for vehicle fuel
Saving energy is equivalent to increasing energy supplies. So, conservation stretches our finite energy supply for future generations.

16. Exploiting crude oil
U.S. coal, natural gas, & nuclear power supplies are adequate
But we import 66% of our crude oil
Increasing dependence on imported oil causes trade imbalances, military actions, economic disruptions, coastal oil spills
Fossil fuels (crude oil, coal, natural gas) were formed 100–500 million years ago in swamps and shallow seas. We have used about half of that oil in the past century. When it’s gone, it’s gone!

17. Crude oil reserves vs. production
Proved reserves: an accurate estimate of how much oil can be economically obtained from a field
The Middle East has 61% of proved reserves
The U.S. and others will depend on this area for oil
1 barrel = 42 gallons
Most of the world’s large oil deposits have now been located, mapped, and “proved.” It is unlikely that we will “find” significant, new, large oil reserves now.

18. Recovery Production from a field does not proceed at a steady rate
Oil is trapped in pore spaces of sedimentary rock
At first, pressurized oil may gush from a well
But only 25% of oil can be removed using conventional pumping (primary recovery)
Secondary recovery can remove up to 50% of oil
By injecting steam or brine into the wells. It is like trying to get all the honey out of a honeycomb.
Enhanced recovery involves techniques such as injecting carbon dioxide to break up oil, allowing even more oil to be obtained. This is expensive, though.

19. Declining U.S. reserves Up to 1970, the U.S. was oil independent
In 1970, production decreased but consumption INCREASED.
The U.S., Europe, and Japan increased imports from the Middle East during the 70’s and 80’s
Imported crude oil was cheap and plentiful
The U.S. and other industrialized countries steadily increased their dependence on imported oil

20. Adjusting to higher prices
In response to higher prices, the U.S. and other nations
Increased domestic production, e.g., the Alaskan pipeline, re-opening old fields
Increased fuel efficiency standards, e.g., lowered speed limits in some places (to 55 mph)
Promoted appliance and building efficiencies
Developed alternative energy sources
Created a strategic oil reserve in Louisiana to store 702 million barrels of oil (33 days of oil at 21 million barrels/day use)
…but have we really attempted to conserve energy?

21. Back to the future Prices rose to over $140/barrel in 2008
People reduced driving and bought hybrid cars
Oil companies had record profits
Food prices soared
Congress raised efficiency standards and called for increased renewable fuels

22. The consequences of U.S. dependency
U.S. dependency on foreign oil has three costs:
Costs of buying oil
Risk of supply disruptions (e.g., political instability in the Middle East)
Ultimate resource limitations
In 2000, the U.S. paid $300 billion in oil imports
Since 2000, imports increased 24% and oil’s price rose fivefold

23. Persian Gulf oil The U.S. keeps a military capability in the region
Recognizes the political instability
Ensures access to Persian Gulf oil
Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded Kuwait (1990)
U.S.-led Persian Gulf War threw Hussein out
The U.S.’s ongoing presence angered radical Islamic Al Qaeda
Led to the September 11, 2001 attack on the U.S.

24. The U.S. still relies on oil exports
Military costs represent a significant government subsidy to oil “costs”
Costing money and human lives
The U.S. is now importing 44% of our oil from nations other than OPEC nations
Canada, Mexico, Colombia, Russia, Nigeria
These are politically stable
But production in those regions is decreasing
For now, we continue to be dependent on OPEC and Persian Gulf oil.

25. Other fossil fuels: natural gas
The U.S. imports 16.5% of natural gas used
Most comes from Canada
Gas is used in industry, residential, and electrical power generation
Costs fluctuate with supply and demand and season
U.S. proved reserves = 9 years’ worth
Worldwide, there is four times as much nat. gas as oil
Natural gas is piped or liquefied (liquid natural gas [LNG])
New LNG facilities are seen as security and safety hazards

26. Natural-gas-run cars
Cars can run on natural gas with installation of a gas tank and engine modifications
Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel
Releases carbon dioxide and water
But not hydrocarbons or sulfur oxides
Used in buses and car fleets in the U.S.
But there are limited service stations
Detroit automakers no longer sell these cars
The fleet is growing in Europe
The U.S. needs stronger public-policy support

27. Synthetic oil (at a price)
The Fischer-Tropsch process turns natural gas into synthetic oil
It is only 10% more expensive than oil
Natural gas can be turned into diesel and home-heating fuels
Drilling in the lower 48 states occurs in sensitive areas
Environmental damage from roads, wells, and pipelines
Federal lands are being drilled
A 3,600-mile gas pipe is needed to bring gas from Alaska and Canada
Costing $25 billion and causing environmental harm

28. Oil shale Found in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming
Oil shale: a fine sedimentary rock containing kerogen, a waxlike hydrocarbon
Refining can produce gasoline and other petroleum products
One ton of shale produces ½ barrel of oil
Mining, transportation, and waste disposal are prohibitive
Oil companies consider developing oil shale deposits;
They face stiff opposition due to production of air and water pollution during the processing of oil shale.
Development must get local and state approval.

29. Oil sand
Oil sand: a sedimentary material containing bitumen, a hydrocarbon that can be refined like oil; the oil sand is heated to melt and collect the bitumen.
Alberta, Canada has the largest deposits (152 BBs)
The cost is competitive with oil
Mining oil sand causes significant environmental damage
82,000 acres of boreal forest and wetlands have already been heavily disturbed
Oil shale and oil sand will inevitably be used in the U. S. and Canada when oil prices climb dramatically.

30. Security threats: global climate change
Burning fossil fuels releases CO2
Coal produces the most greenhouse gas emissions
Natural gas produces the least (of the fossil fuels)
Increasing carbon dioxide levels likely increases average global temperatures
Melting ice caps and raising sea levels
Causing more severe storms, droughts, heat waves
The U.S. is a leading producer of greenhouse gases
since it consumes the most fossil fuels (see next slide)

31. Annual carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels

32. Energy-saving technologies are here!
CHP facilities install a small power plant to produce electricity
Heats the building with “waste” heat
Achieves an 80% efficiency
The combined-cycle natural-gas unit generates electricity
One turbine burns natural gas
A second turbine runs on excess steam from the other turbine
Achieves 50% efficiency at half the cost and less pollution

33. Final thoughts A human population of 7 billion demands energy.
Two pathways can develop non-fossil-fuel energies:
Nuclear power (though it needs technological solutions to the disposal of radioactive waste)
Renewable energy, such as solar and wind power: needs government support