1. Plant Nutrition

2. Where do Plants get their nutrients?

3. PLANT: A SUGAR FACTORY

4. NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY AND SOIL
The relative availability of nutrients to plant roots depends on the pH level of
the soil.

5. Plant Nutrients Content in % Compared to Nitrogen

6. Average Composition of Plant

7. VISUAL SYMPTOMS ON LEAVES
When inspecting plants for symptoms of nutrient disorders, compare plants displaying symptoms with normal ones and examine new and older leaves.
OLDEST LEAVES: nutrient deficiencies generally appear first in the oldest leaves when nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium are limiting. These nutrients move from one part of the plant to another as needed.
YOUNGER LEAVES AND TERMINAL BUDS: show a deficiency when sulfur, iron, calcium, zinc copper, boron, manganese or chlorine are limiting. These nutrients do not readily move about in the plant.

8. Nutrients Deficiency Symptoms on Leaves
The most common symptoms of nutrient deficiency are stunted growth and leaf discoloration. The position of the symptoms (distal, basal or intermediate) depends on the mobility of the nutrient inside the plant (young leaves competing with oldest leaves)

9. Mobile Nutrients - Identification Key

10. Immobile Nutrients – Identification Key

11. Limiting Nutrient Theory

12. Fertilizer Needs related to Soil Content

13. Organic Fertilizers – Macronutrients Content
Analysis of Organic Fertilizers
Manure %N %P %K
Cow
2,0
2.3
2,4
Horse
1.7
0.7
1,8
Sheep
4,0
1.4
3,5
Poultry

14. How Plant reacts to Fertilizers

15. Nutrients Removal: Apple
N (KG)
P (KG)
K (KG)
Mg (Ca)
Ca (KG)
Nutrient removed per ton apple
0.5
0.1
1.1
0.05
Nutrient removal at 50 tons/ha 25 5 55
2.5
Nutrient incorporated into trees/ha 20 4 15 2 45
Total nutrient consumed 50t/ha 9 70
4.5
47.5

17. Nitrogen Nitrogen is a building block of plant protein.
It is an integral part of chlorophyll and is a component of amino acids, nucleic acids and coenzymes.
Most nitrogen in the soil is tied up in organic matter. It is taken up by plants as nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions from inorganic nitrate and ammonium compounds.
These compounds can enter the soil as a result of bacterial action (nitrogen fixation), application of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer, or conversion of organic matter into ammonium and nitrate compounds.
Not all nitrates in the soil are taken up by plants.
Nitrates can be leached beyond the root zone in sandy soils or converted to nitrogen gas in wet, flooded soils.
Nitrogen fixation (from atmosphere) by soil microbes immobilizes nitrogen, making in available for later use by plants.

18. Nitrogen Hints

19. Most plants depend on bacteria to supply nitrogen

20. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation (bacteria hosted inside roots nodules)

21. Nitrogen Inputs/Outputs

22. Agriculture and overall Nitrogen Balance

23. Nitrogen from Fall to Springtime

24. Nitrogen Status in Soil in October and March

25. Nitrate and Leaching

26. Nitrification and Denitrification

27. Common N Deficiency

28. N Deficiencies
Soybean
Rice
Maize
Wheat

29. Phosphorus
Plants use phosphorus to form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA and to store and transfer energy.
Phosphorus promotes early plant growth and root formation through its role in the division and organization of cells.
Phosphorus is essential to flowering and fruiting and to the transfer of hereditary traits.
Phosphorus is adsorbed by plants as H2PO4-,HPO4-2 or PO-3, depending upon soil pH.
The mobility of phosphorus in soil is low, and deficiencies are common in cool, wet soils.
Phosphorus should be applied to fields and gardens before planting and should be incorporated into the soil. This is especially important for perennial crops.
Application rates should be based on soil testing.

30. P hints

31. P Deficiencies
Alfalfa
Rice
Wheat
Corn

32. P Deficiency in Maize and Grape

33. Potassium
Potassium is necessary to plants for translocation of sugars and for starch formation.
It is important for efficient use of water through its role in opening and closing small apertures (stomata) on the surface of leaves.
Potassium increases plant resistance to diseases and assists in enzyme activation and photosynthesis.
It also increases the size and quality of fruits and improves winter hardiness.
Plants take up potassium in the form of potassium ions (K+).
It is relatively immobile in soils but can leach in sandy soils.
Potassium fertilizer should be incorporated into the soil at planting or before.
Application rates should be based on a soil test.

34. K Deficiencies
Grape
Corn
Alfalfa

35. Calcium
Calcium provides a building block (calcium pectate) for cell walls and membranes and must be present for the formation of new cells.
It is a constituent of important plant carbohydrates, such as starch and cellulose.
Calcium promotes plant vigor and rigidity and is important to proper root and stem growth.
Plants adsorb calcium in the form of the calcium ion (Ca+).
Calcium needs can be only determined by soil test.
In most cases calcium requirements are met by liming the soil.
Potatoes are an exception; use gypsum (calcium sulfate) on potatoes to avoid scab disease if calcium is needed.
Gypsum provides calcium to the soil but does not raise the pH level of the soil.
Keeping pH low helps prevent growth of the bacteria that cause scab disease.

36. Calcium Hints

37. Magnesium
Magnesium is a component of the chlorophyll molecule and is therefore essential for photosynthesis.
Magnesium serves as an activator for many plant enzymes required for sugar metabolism and movement and for growth processes.
Plants take up magnesium as the Mg+2 ion.

38. Magnesium Hints

39. Magnesium Deficiencies
Maize
Cotton

40. Zinc Zinc is an essential component of several enzymes in plants.
It controls the synthesis of indoleacetic acid (ANA), an important plant growth regulator, and it is involved in the production of chlorophyll and protein.
Zinc is taken up by plants as the zinc ion (Zn+2).
Zinc deficiencies are more likely to occur in sandy soils that are low in organic matter.
High soil pH, as in high-lime soils, the solubility of zinc decreases and it becomes less available.
Zinc and phosphorus have antagonistic effects in the soil. Therefore zinc also becomes less available in soils that are high in phosphorus.
Wet and cold soil conditions can cause zinc deficiency because of slow root growth and slow release of zinc from organic matter.

41. Zinc

42. Zinc Deficiencies in Apple

43. Iron Iron is taken up by plants as ferrous ion (Fe+2).
Iron is required for the formation of chlorophyll in plant cells.
It serves as an activator for biochemical processes such as respiration, photosynthesis and symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
Turf, ornamentals and certain trees are especially susceptible to iron deficiency (Quince, Peach, Kiwi)
Symptoms of iron deficiency can occur on soils with pH greater than 7.0.
Specific needs for iron can be determined by soil test, tissue test and visual symptoms.

45. Mycorrhizae
Most plants have mycorrhizae

46. Some Plants are Parasitic
Dodder on Pickleweed
Mistletoe on an Oak

47. Carnivorous Plants
Venus Fly Trap
Round leafed Sundew

48. Improving Protein Content

49. Genetic Engineering
There are two main techniques used:

50. Products of Plant Biotechnology
Delayed ripening tomatoes
Herbicide resistant canola, soybeans, cotton, and other crops
Insect resistant corn, potatoes, and other crops
Golden Rice (vitamin A and beta-carotene enriched)

51. Plants have hormones
Hormones

52. Plant Hormones What is a hormone? It must meet these criteria:
An endogenous organic compound
Active at very low concentrations
Produced in one tissue
Transported from the site of synthesis to the tissue in which it acts
Affects growth, development and physiological responses (it is not a nutrient or vitamin)

53. Plant Hormones Auxin Gibberellins (GA) Cytokinins Abscisic Acid (ABA)
Differentiation
Elongation
Growth responses
Gibberellins (GA)
Cell division
Seed germination
Cytokinins
Cell enlargement
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
Inhibitor
Responses to stress
Stomatal opening
Ethylene
Fruit ripening
Flowering
Flower senescence
Others
jasmonic acid, brassinolide, salicylic acid

54. Auxin Controls cell elongation and expansion
Involved in phototropic and gravitropic responses
growth of shoots towards light
downward growth of roots (response to gravity)
Suppresses growth of axillary buds
Stimulates root initiation and growth
Stimulates fruit growth

55. Phototropism

56. Phototropism Experiments

57. More phototropism experiments

58. Auxin

59. Effect of Auxin

60. How does Auxin work?

61. Terminal Bud Removal

62. Branching of shoots Where do branches come from?
Develop from axillary buds
Buds are present within leaf axils on the stem (stems have buds)

63. Branching of shoots
Axillary buds contain a meristem that is usually inactive
apical dominance growth at the apex suppresses growth of lateral shoots
Why are axillary buds normally dormant?
Active apical bud
Dormant
axillary
buds

64. Branching of shoots
Auxin is produced in shoot apex and transported down the plant stem
The concentration of auxin is high close to the shoot apex
Auxin concentration is lower in tissues further away from the apex
Auxin produced
in shoot apex
High [auxin]
Low [auxin]

65. Branching of shoots
Auxin produced
in shoot apex
High [auxin]
Low [auxin]
High concentrations of auxin suppress growth of axillary buds near the apex
Further away from the apex, where the auxin concentration is lower, growth of axillary buds is not inhibited
These buds develop and grow, forming branches

66. Branching of shoots
The strength of apical dominance varies among plant species
Strong apical dominance results in plants with a dominant primary shoot

67. Branching of shoots
The strength of apical dominance varies among plant species
Weak apical dominance leads to a more branched plant form

68. Pinching promotes branching
Apical bud is removed
Auxin is not present
Axillary buds develop
Pinching removes the apical meristem, the source of auxin
With no auxin coming from the apex, axillary buds develop giving rise to a bushier plant

69. Tree topping - a (bad) example of loss of apical dominance
Tree topping removes the shoot apex/apices
Axillary buds grow and develop into long, weak sprouts
Trees that are topped are permanently damaged and lose much visual appeal

70. Effect of Auxin

71. Synthetic auxins: practical applications
Stimulate rooting of cuttings in plant propagation
Control fruit set - the number of fruit that develop after pollination
2,4-D, a synthetic auxin, is used as a herbicide to kill dicot weeds in lawns and cereal crops (monocot plants)

72. Cytokinins Stimulate cell division Promote shoot differentiation
Delay senescence of leaves

73. Cytokinins
When a terminal bud is removed, the inhibitory effect of auxin on the lateral buds is removed, and the stimulating effect of cytokinins activates the axillary buds

74. Branching of roots Branch roots are initiated in the pericycle
Layer of cells between the endodermis and vascular cylinder

75. Secondary growth Increased diameter of stems and roots
Primarily due to activity of the cambium
Layer of meristem cells between the phloem and xylem

76. Secondary growth
In woody plants, division of cells in the cambium gives rise to a new layer of xylem cells each year
Xylem becomes lignified and permanent, visible as annual growth rings

77. Secondary growth
Phloem is not a permanent tissue but is replaced each year
Cambium provides cells for new phloem tissue

78. Manipulating cytokinins
Promotes shoot growth in tissue culture
Used to alter fruit shape

79. Gibberellins (GA) Stimulate stem elongation
many dwarf varieties are gibberellin-deficient or unable to respond to gibberellin
Control metabolism of stored reserves during seed germination

80. Foolish Seedling
Is a condition found in rice plants where they grow tall and weak, often falling over and not producing any rice. It is caused by a fungus of Giberella sp.

81. Gibberellins
They are produced in the tips of shoots and roots, young leaves and embryos.

82. Manipulating gibberellins
Height control - keeping plants small
flowering pot plants, e.g. Easter lily
bedding plants
Increasing size of grapes by making looser bunches (Thompson seedless)
Promotes desired elongated shape of 'Red Delicious' apples

83. Abscisic Acid (ABA) Stimulates closure of stomata
Promotes maturation and dormancy of seeds
Inhibits seed germination
Regulates many responses to adverse environmental conditions
Plants under stress frequently have elevated levels of abscisic acid

84. Abscisic Acid

85. Ethylene Regulates ripening of many fruits
Controls senescence of many flowers
Triggers abscission of leaves and fruits
Increases proportion of female flowers in cucurbits (cucumber, zucchini, pumpkin)
Regulates shoot growth during germination

86. Ethylene
Causes fruit to ripen.

87. Manipulating ethylene
Ethylene application
Stimulates flowering (pineapples)
Initiates ripening (bananas, tomatoes)
Promotes fruit drop (cherries)
Ethylene inhibition
Delays ripening (long term apple storage)
Delays flower senescence (silver treatment of cut flowers)

88. Summary Growth results from
Cell division
Expansion or elongation
Differentiation
Growth in plants occurs in specialized areas
Meristems are the sites of cell division and are the source of new cells for plant growth

89. Summary
Cell expansion and differentiation occur in regions behind meristem
Hormones play critical roles in plant growth
Horticulturists control the shape and form of plants by manipulating growth and development

90. More Uses of Plant Hormones

91. Gravitropism
Refers to the growth of plants in response to gravity

92. Sleep Movements

93. Photoperiod and Flowering

94. Effect of Red and Far Red Light

95. Thigmotropism

96. Manipulating plant growth: Pruning
Fruit trees are pruned to develop an efficient structure to bear fruit and to maximize interception of light
before pruning
after pruning

97. Manipulating plant growth: Training
Plants are trained for both decorative and practical reasons

98. Manipulating plant growth: Shaping
Trees and shrubs are shaped for commercial and aesthetic reasons
Christmas trees
Topiary

99. Two processes at work in plant growth
At the cellular level there are two processes that contribute to plant growth
Cell division
The source of new cells for growth of an organ or tissue
division
division 2

100. Two processes at work in plant growth
Cell enlargement
An increase in the volume of a cell
The combined effects of both processes lead to the growth of plant organs and to the overall increase in size of a plant
enlargement 2

101. Primary Growth
Growth that leads to increased height of shoots or length of roots
Growth occurs at the apices of these organs
Cells in the apical meristems divide and provide the supply of cells for growth

102. Cell differentiation
As cells “move away” from the apex they differentiate into specialized types of cells
Every cell has the genetic potential to develop into any of the specialized cell types in a plant

103. Differentiation
Differentiated cells don’t normally switch to another cell type
After plant cells differentiate they are fixed in place
surrounded by rigid cell walls, glued together

104. Manipulating plant hormones
Horticulturists use synthetic hormones, hormone analogs and inhibitors of hormone action to manipulate many aspects of plant growth and development
These compounds are called plant growth regulators