1. Learning Theories
Skinner to Vygotsky

2. Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)
Based on the concept that all learning can be studied through observed behaviors.
Stimulus-Response is key to learning.
Stimulus: Events encountered in learning.
Response: What happens in reaction to stimulus.
Reinforcement: Appropriate S-R interaction is rewarded, inappropriate S-R interaction is punished.

3. Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)
Readiness: A series of S-R can be connected if geared towards a larger goal.
Practice: S-R events should take small, repeated steps to allow for reinforcement.

4. Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
The “Ah-ha” theory. Higher order thinking skills.
“Groupings” based on characteristics are key.
Learning takes place through the discovery of the relationship between elements.
Gaps in groupings leads to exploring possibilities.

5. Progressivism (Dewey)
Education is a lifetime event. It should not be viewed as a preparation for life.
Schooling should be related to the life of the student.
Students should explore problem resolution situations (projects). Subject matter should be presented to help resolve problem.
The relationships in the classroom should be of working together to complete projects.

6. Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)
Cognitive structure (mind and intelligence) pass through biological developmental stages.
Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Motor actions
Preoperation (3-7): Intuitive, reactional
Concrete operational (8-11): logical with concrete referents.
Formal operations (12-15): Movement to abstractions

7. Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)
Cognitive structures change through adaptation:
Assimilation: interpretations of events through present cognitive structures
Accommodation: change to cognitive structure to explain environment.

8. Constructivism (Bruner)
Learning is an active process through which the learner connects new information to previously learned information.
Discovery based
Connect to students’ interests
Spiral based structure to teaching (provides students the opportunity to add to schema)

9. Social Development (Vygotsky)
Learning take place through social interaction.
Learning progresses through stages that expose students to knowledge just beyond present state. (ZPD)
Requires assistance from someone more advanced in this area.
Students use socially constructed tools (language, gestures, etc.) to negotiate meaning.

10. LANGUAGE www.ucalgary.ca/~mueller/P365/language.ppt
Language is fundamental to thinking and cognition, even isomorphic with cognitive processes in North American psychology

11. Explanations of language learning
Psycho-linguists, e.g., Chomsky
“Language Acquisition Device” innate
“preparedness”?
Psychologists, e.g., Skinner
Reinforcement
Sudden? Full strength? Creative?
Pavlov’s “second signal system”
Cognitive science

12. Linguistic relativism?
Sapir - Whorf hypothesis:
Language habits predispose interpretation;
“cold” means differently in Calgary compared to Cancun?
Post-modernism …. Can anyone understand anyone else?

13. Linguistic universality?
For example, color words actually do not proliferate without number, just about a dozen common ones across cultures
“Eskimos” do not have hundreds of words for “snow”

14. Gender differences? Men: language is for Women: language is for
Negotiation
Preserving independence
Avoiding failure
Women: language is for
Establishing connections
Establishing support & confirmation
reaching consensus

15. Linguistic “Determinism” -- not
Linguistic “relativism” does not imply “determinism” -- can differences in thinking overcome any absent words (thoughts and language not one and same)
Even relativism overstated, e.g., note the “cooperative principle” (Grice) -- presumed to be seeking mutual understanding (but also Verbal Self Defense!

16. How is language acquired?
Innate processes?
Experience, learning?
Something else?
Several things?

17. Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Adapted from Ellis, R. (1986) “Understanding Second Language Acquisition

18. Acculturation Model (J. Schumann)
SLA is one aspect of acculturation
The degree of acculturation will control the degree of SLA
Social distance
Factors which interact between the native and target groups.
Psychological distance
Affective factors which impact on the individual learner.

19. Social Distance Bad Learning Good Learning
One group has higher status than other
Target group attempt to limit assimilation
L2 group maintains own social sphere
Larger, cohesive L2 group
Cultures come into conflict
One or both groups have negative feelings for other group
L2 use of target language is temporary
Good Learning
L1 & L2 groups are of equal status
Both groups hope for learner to assimilate in target group
Both groups believe that L2 group shares social sphere
Small, non-cohesive L2 group
L2’s culture is compatible with target group
Both groups have positive attitudes for other group
L2 group will be in target language for extended time period

20. Psychological Distance
Language shock
fear, doubt, and confusion when using target language
Culture shock
fear, stress, disorientation due to negotiating new culture
Motivation
Ego boundaries
How much risk they are willing to take

21. Pidginization Hypothesis
Interlanguage development (the individual languages developed by those in the early stages of SLA) becomes fossilized when social & psychological distances are great.
These distances limit input
The use of language remains at the communicative stage
Communicative function: transmission of referential (basic) information
Integrative function: language that marks a person as member of group
Expressive function: language that displays “linguistic virtuosity”

22. Accommodation Theory (H. Giles)
Similar to Acculturation Theory in that both attempt to explain how group relations impact SLA
Acculturation: Actual distance between groups
Accommodation: Perceived distance between groups
Social distances are in constant negotiation

23. Motivation is primary factor in SLA
It is a reflex of how learners define themselves in ethnic terms
Factors that impact identity
Identification with specific “ingroup” (native)
Inter-ethnic comparisons: One group is better than other
Perception of ethno-linguistic vitality
Perception of ingroup boundaries: hard boundaries (separation from other group), soft boundaries (blending of language and culture)
Identification and status with ingroup social categories: occupation, religion, etc.

24. Ethnic speech markers are used to show relationships in particular settings
Upward Convergence: User is positively motivated towards outgroup. Attempts to limit speech markers
Downward divergence: User is negatively motivated towards outgroup, accentuates speech markers.

25. Variable Competence Model (R. Ellis)
The way a language is learned is a reflection of how it is used.
Product: continuum of discourse types ranging from entirely planned to entirely unplanned
Process: Distinction between linguistic knowledge (rules) and the ability to use this knowledge (appropriate use of language as well as correct use)

26. Language acquisition is the result of making sense of language events
Language develops as user applies the knowledge of language to contextual situations
Variable competence: user possesses a heterogeneous rule system
Variable application of procedures: user applies a variety or procedures to confirm language knowledge
Language acquisition is the result of making sense of language events

27. Language development occurs:
There is a single knowledge store containing the variable rules for language use (automatic & analyzed)
The learner has a capacity for language use with both primary (unplanned & unanalyzed) and secondary (planned & analyzed) discourse processes
L2 performance is variable based on use of the processes mentioned above
Language development occurs:
acquisition of new L2 rules through participation discourse events
activation of L2 rules so they become part of unplanned discourse

28. Variable Competence Model of SLA (R. Ellis)
Acquisition
Acquisition
automatic
Unplanned discourse
Planned discourse
L2 Knowledge
Use
Use
analytic
primary
processes
secondary
processes

29. Motivation Motivation affects level of language acquisition
Integrative Motivation: occurs when person learning a second language does so in order to be identified with or become part of target group.
Instrumental Motivation: occurs when person learning second language see it as a tool for personal or professional progress.
Those with Integrative Motivation tend to acquire second language better.

30. Theories of Steve Krashen

31. Learning vs. Acquisition (1)
Second language is developed through formal study of structure
Language learned through formal instruction
Language learning occurs at conscious level
Second language follows a pattern similar to first language
Language is naturally acquired.
Language acquisition occurs at subconscious level

32. Learning vs. Acquisition (2)
Language learning develops explicit knowledge of language
Formal instruction of language structure needed to provide key information
Language acquisition develops implicit understanding of language structure
Formal teaching of language structure does not improve acquisition

33. Second language develops in a natural order
Efforts to teach forms and structures for which students are not ready will not improve acquisition
Grammar-based approaches do not work
Allow time to development to take place

34. Input Hypothesis
Language acquisition occurs through interaction just beyond present ability
Comprehensible input (I+1) occurs when contextual clues provide for language clues

35. Affective Filter Input is effected by a variety of affective events.
Lowering stress increase probability of acquisition

36. Monitor Hypothesis
Grammar learning will appear through the use of a monitor
Monitor examines output
It takes time to develop

37. Language provides information.
Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)
Contrary to popular belief, information learned in one language is available in the second.

38. What this means:
Information provided in one language becomes available in the other, once second language development reaches that point.

39. Different types of language.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
Common, everyday language needed to function socially.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
Language needed in academic environment.

40. Different types of language.
Problems arise when BICS is considered academically proficient.
Students are moved out of programs without needed support.
Students are judged as being intellectually inferior, which can be internalized by the student.

41. Threshold Hypothesis
There is a dynamic relationship between languages and cognitive development in bilingual students.
The better developed both languages are the better the probability of positive cognitive development
Students with limited native language development are more likely to suffer negative cognitive development

42. Threshold Hypothesis Second Threshold First Threshold
Top Floor: Balanced Bilinguals
Children have age-appropriate ability in both languages
and positive cognitive advantage.
Second Threshold
Middle Floor: Less Balanced Bilinguals
Children have age-appropriate ability in one language,
not both. No cognitive advantage or disadvantage.
First Threshold
Lower Floor: Limited Bilinguals
Children have low levels of ability in both languages
and probable cognitive disadvantage.

43. Provide Instruction in a Demanding, yet Contextualized Format.