1. Revision of C6 Chemical synthesis

2. C6.1 Chemicals are why we need them
Chemical synthesis: chemical reactions and processes used to get a desired product using starting materials called reagents. The products can be useful for a variety of purposes but tend to be either…

3. Understand the importance of chemical synthesis to provide food additives, fertilisers, dyestuffs, paints, pigments and pharmaceuticals.

4. Interpret information about the sectors, scale and importance of chemical synthesis in industry and laboratory.
fine chemicals A chemical product that is made in relatively small quantities and is typically high in cost, e.g. a flavouring or vitamin, drugs etc. They are made to high levels of purity. Usually in laboratories.
bulk chemicals
A chemical product that is made in large amounts, very cheaply and often used to make other chemicals or to process other materials e.g. bleach, solvents, sulphuric acid etc. Usually made in industries.

5. Recall the formulae of ….
Gases:
chlorine = Cl2, hydrogen = H2, nitrogen= N2, oxygen = O2
Acids:
hydrochloric acid = HCl, nitric acid = HNO3,
sulfuric acid = H2SO4,
Alkalis
sodium hydroxide = NaOH,
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2

6. [MX2]calcium chloride = CaCl2,
Salts
[MX] sodium chloride = NaCl, magnesium oxide = MgO,
potassium chloride = KCl
[MX2]calcium chloride = CaCl2,
More complex salts… magnesium carbonate = [MgCO3] magnesium sulfate = [MgSO4]; sodium carbonate [Na2CO3]; calcium carbonate [CaCO3]

7. H ONLY : Work out the formulae of ionic compounds given the charges on the ions.
Positive ion
Negative ion
Formula
Sodium chloride
Na+
Cl-
NaCl
Magnesium chloride
Mg2+
MgCl2
Calcium oxide
Ca2+
O2-
CaO
Aluminium oxide
Al3+
Al2O3
Magnesium sulfate
SO42-
MgSO4

8. H ONLY Work out the charge on one ion, given the formula of a salt and the charge on the other ion.
If magnesium forms Mg2+ ions and sulfate forms SO42- ions then identify the charges on the other ions in the following compounds…
MgO
MgCl2
MgNO3
Na2SO4
Al2(SO4)3
CaSO4

9. Recall the main hazard symbols, and understand the safety precautions to use when handling hazardous chemicals.
harmful / irritant
corrosive
toxic
highly flammable
oxidising

10. Recall examples of pure acidic compounds which are solid, liquids and gases.
Solids =
citric acid & tartaric acid
Liquids =
sulfuric, nitric and ethanoic acids
hydrogen chloride
Gases =

11. Recall common alkalis…
sodium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide.

12. Recall the pH scale pH 1 to pH 3 shows that there is a STRONG ACID
pH 4 to pH 6 shows that there is a WEAK ACID
pH 7 shows that the substance is NEUTRAL
pH 8 to pH 10 shows that there is a WEAK ALKALI
pH 11 to pH 14 shows that there is a STRONG ALKALI

13. Recall the use of indicators and pH meters to measure pH.
Colour in acid
Colour in neutral
Colour in alkali
litmus
Red
Blue
phenolphthalein
colourless
pink
Universal (a mixture of indicators)
Green
Purple

14. A pH meter.

15. Recall the reactions of acids that produce salts.
Salts can be produced by reacting acids with…..
metals
metal oxides
metal hydroxides
metal carbonates
Write balanced equations with state symbols to describe the characteristic reactions of acids

16. Ca(s) H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(aq) H2(g) + + MgCl2(aq) H2(g) Mg(s) HCl(aq) + +
Metal + acid
Metal acid metal salt hydrogen
calcium + sulfuric
calcium
sulfate +
hydrogen
acid
Ca(s)
H2SO4(aq)
CaSO4(aq)
H2(g) + +
magnesium + hydrochloric
magnesium
chloride +
hydrogen
acid
MgCl2(aq)
H2(g)
Mg(s)
HCl(aq) + +

17. CuO(s) H2SO4(aq) + CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) +
Metal oxide + acid
metal acid metal salt water
oxide
copper + sulfuric
copper
sulfate +
water
oxide
acid
CuO(s)
H2SO4(aq) +
CuSO4(aq) +
H2O(l)
magnesium
chloride +
water
magnesium + hydrochloric
oxide
acid
MgO(s) +
2HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) +
H2O(l)

18. 2KOH(aq) H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) HCl(aq)
Metal hydroxide + acid
metal acid metal salt water
hydroxide
potassium + sulfuric
potassium
sulfate +
water
hydroxide
acid
2KOH(aq)
H2SO4(aq)
K2SO4(aq) +
2H2O(l) +
sodium + hydrochloric
sodium
chloride +
water
hydroxide
acid
H2O(l)
NaOH(aq)
HCl(aq)
NaCl(aq) + +

19. Metal carbonate + acid
metal + acid metal salt + carbon water
carbonate
dioxide
copper + sulfuric
copper + carbon water
carbonate
acid
sulfate
dioxide
CuCO3(s) H2SO4 (aq)
CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
magnesium +hydrochloric
magnesium + carbon water
carbonate
acid
chloride
dioxide
MgCO3(s) HCl (aq)
MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

20. Recall that the reaction of acid with an alkali to form a salt is a neutralisation reaction.
Explain what happens during a neutralisation reaction.
H+ ions from the acid react with OH- ions from the alkali.
When the number of H+ ions is exactly matched by the number of OH- ions to form a pH of 7
H+(aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O(l)
An alkali can cancel out an acid to form a salt and the water (shown above)

21. Acidic substances…
Dissolve in water to form H+ ions giving a pH of less than 7
Can be…
solids e.g. citric acid, tartaric acid
Liquids e.g. sulfuric acid, nitric acid, ethanoic acid
Gases e.g. hydrogen chloride
Form salts with many other substances such as alkalis, hydroxides, carbonates, oxides, metals

22. Explain that acidic compounds….
Dissolve in water to produce aqueous hydrogen ions H+(aq)
All acids contain hydrogen – HCl, H2SO4, CH3COOH
Form solutions with pH lower than 7.
Explain that alkaline compounds….
Dissolve in water to produce aqueous hydroxide ions OH-(aq)
Form solutions with pH higher than 7.

23. Write down the formula of the salt produced given the formula of the acid and the alkali.
HCl
NaOH
NaCl
H2SO4
KOH
K2SO4
Ca(OH)2
CaCl2
Mg(OH)2
MgSO4

24. C6.2 : Planning, Carrying out and controlling chemical synthesis
1. Identify the stages in the chemical synthesis of an inorganic compound.
choosing the reaction or series of reactions
risk assessment (chemical and procedural)
working out the quantities of reactants to use
carrying out the reaction in suitable apparatus in the right conditions (such as temperature, concentration or the presence of a catalyst)
separating the product from the reaction mixture
purifying the product
measuring the yield and checking the purity of the product.

25. Understand the purpose of these techniques….
Dissolving… forming solutions to allow easy mixing of reactants
Crystallisation… to purify a sample by the formation of pure crystals from a cooled (often saturated) solution,
Filtration… to separate solid impurities from a solution, or to remove excess solid.
Evaporation… to remove excess solvent from a solution
Drying in an oven or dessicator… to remove water without the risk of wasting yield.
Titration… to find the concentration of an acid (or alkali) using an alkali (or acid) of a known concentration AND an indicator

26. Understand the importance of purifying chemicals and checking their purity.
There are three main grades of chemicals :
1. Analytical – this is the most pure (and most expensive!) If a product is to be used in foods/medicines then this grade is needed – eg. Table salt.
2. Laboratory – this is the ‘medium grade’.
3. Technical – this is low grade purity – eg salt for gritting roads.

27. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
Understand that a balanced equation for a chemical reaction shows the relative numbers of atoms and molecules of reactants and products.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
Reactants : 1 x Magnesium atom
2 x Hydrogen atoms
2 x Chlorine atoms
And, because the equation is balanced, the same number of atoms are present for the products side!
The numbers in front of the formula tells you how many molecules there are of it. So above, there are 2 molecules of HCl, and 1 molecule of everything else.

28. Understand that the relative atomic mass of an element shows the mass of it’s atom relative to the mass of other atoms.
Specifically, the RAM is compared to the mass of Hydrogen.

29. Be able to use the periodic table to obtain the relative atomic masses of elements.
Look at the periodic table in your planners.
The bottom number is the relative atomic mass.

30. Calculate the relative formula mass of a compound using the formula and the relative atomic masses of the atoms it contains.
What is the relative formula mass of calcium carbonate?
Formula of calcium carbonate = CaCO3
Periodic table :
Ca = 40g C = 12g O = 16g
CaCO3 = (3x16) =
= 100g

31. What is the relative formula mass of magnesium chloride?
Formula of magnesium chloride = MgCl2
From the periodic table:
Mass of Mg = 24g Mass of Cl = 35.5g
MgCl2 = 24 + (2 x 35.5) =
= 95g

33. How much magnesium oxide should we expect? 16/32 = 0.5
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s) 8 O
On periodic table 16
16g of oxygen (Relative formula mass = 32) is used to make magnesium oxide (relative formula mass = 40).
How much magnesium oxide should we expect?
16/32 = 0.5
Ratio is 1:2 for oxygen to magnesium oxide
2 X 0.5 X 40 = 40g yield of magnesium oxide

34. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
2.4g of magnesium (Relative atomic mass = 24) is used to make magnesium chloride (relative formula mass = 95).
How much of this salt should we expect?
2.4/24 = 0.1
Ratio is 1:1 for magnesium to magnesium chloride
0.1 X 1 X 95 = 9.5g yield of magnesium chloride

35. Calculate percentage yields given the actual and theoretical yield.
actual mass of pure sample X 100
theoretical mass expected
So if by experiment, 7.4g of magnesium chloride was made, when theoretically 9.5g was expected; what is the percentage yield?
% yield = 7.4
X 100
= x 100
= 77.8 % yield.
9.5

37. Titrations
An acid-base titration is the determination of the concentration of an acid or base by exactly neutralizing the acid/base with an acid or base of known concentration. This allows for quantitative analysis of the concentration of an unknown acid or soluble base. It makes use of the neutralisation reaction that occurs between acids and bases and the knowledge of how acids and bases will react if their formulas are known.
Acid-Base titrations can also be used to find percent purity of chemicals.

40. (This could be a solid dissolved in water)
Describe how to carry out an acid alkali titration accurately.
Open the tap to let the acid run into the flask
Stop the tap at the first sign of a colour change
Note the volume delivered (this is approximate)
Repeat, but add drop by drop near the volume noted for greater accuracy. Record exact volume of acid needed to get colour change for neutral.
Use the volumes of both solutions and the concentration of the acid to find the concentration of the alkali using a given formula
(This could be a solid dissolved in water)

41. What is the concentration of hydrochloric acid?
Substitute results in a given formula to interpret titration results quantitatively.
In a titration, 50cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide was exactly neutralised by 30cm3 of hydrochloric acid.
What is the concentration of hydrochloric acid?
Method
1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water
NaOH(aq) 
HCl(aq)
NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
2. Use the big numbers in front of the formulae ( if any) to work out the proportion of NaOH to HCl.
In this case, it is 1:1 so 1 mole NaOH reacts with 1 mole HCl

42. 3. Find out how many moles of sodium hydroxide are present.
(moles = [concentration (in M) x volume (in cm3)] : 1000
The number of moles in 50cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide = (2x50) : 1000
= 0.1 moles of sodium hydroxide.
From part 1 and 2 we know that 30cm3 of HCl also contains 0.1 moles.
So to find the concentration of acid you rearrange the formula: concentration = (moles x 1000) : Volume
Conc = (0.1 x 1000) : 30
= 3.33 M

43. Understand why it is important to control the rate of a chemical synthesis.
If it is too fast it could make it unsafe.
(eg could get too hot if exothermic; gas could be produced to quickly and pressure build up)
If it is too slow, then product would be made too slowly, and yield low, so profit too low. (economic factors)

44. Explain the term ‘rate of chemical reaction’.
This is the speed at which the reaction takes place.
A reaction takes place when reactant molecules collide with enough energy .

45. Describe ways for following the rate of a reaction.
1. By collecting a gas.
2. Weighing the reaction mixture.
3. Observing colour change or precipitate.

46. Interpret results from experiments that investigate rate of reactions.
Time (seconds)
Mass lost (g)
The reaction starts off quickly
It slows down as it proceeds.
It eventually stops when one of the reactant particles has run out.

47. Rate graphs and reactant concentrations
Amount of product
Time
All product
Mix of reactant
And product
Reactant Concentration falls
Rate of Reaction falls
reactants
product
Gradient of graph decreases
All reactant

48. Rates and Graphs
These show the increasing amount of product or the decreasing amount of reactant.
Amount of product
Time
Amount of reactant
Time
Steep gradient Fast reaction
Shallow gradient Slow reaction
Steep gradient Fast reaction
Shallow gradient Slow reaction

51. Increasing the temperature would have the same effect.
Graph shows a faster reaction with powder. Same final volume of gas made.
Time
Mass lost
Chips
Powder
Increasing the temperature would have the same effect.

52. Recall that reaction rates vary with….
particle size (surface area)
concentration
temperature.
Remember – to increase the rate of reaction, there needs to be more successful collisions per second.

53. Extra surface for molecules to collide with.
Surface area
The reactions of solids can clearly only take place at the surface of the solid.
If we break a solid into smaller pieces we get more area and a faster reaction.
Molecules collide with the surface of the solid
Extra surface for molecules to collide with.

54. Collisions infrequent
Use simple collision theory to explain how rates of reaction depend on the concentration of solutions of soluble chemicals.
Reactions in solution involve dissolved particles that must collide before reaction is possible.
The more crowded (concentrated) the solution, the faster the reaction because the frequency of successful collisions increases.
Collisions infrequent
Collisions frequent

55. Understand that catalysts speed up a chemical reaction while not being used up in the process.
Because they are not used up, they are recyclable.
For chemical reactions to occur:
Existing bonds have to begin breaking so that new ones can be formed.
The molecules have to collide in such a way that the reacting parts of the molecules are brought together.
Catalysts can help with either or both of these processes.