1. Literature and Corpora
Corpus Linguistics Summer Institute, 30 June – 3 July 2008
University of Liverpool
Michaela Mahlberg

2. Today’s talk Literature and computer corpora ?
Corpus stylistics and the theoretical context
Examples
Work in progress and further directions

3. I am in a car park in Leeds when I tell my husband I don't want to be married to him anymore. David isn't even in the car park with me. He's at home, looking after the kids, and I have only called him to remind him that he should write a note for Molly's class teacher. The other bit just sort of slips out. This is a mistake, obviously. Even though I am, apparently, and to my immense surprise, the kind of person who tells her husband that she doesn't want to be married to him anymore, I really didn't think that I was the kind of person to say so in a car park, on a mobile phone. That particular self-assessment will now have to be revised, clearly. I can describe myself as the kind of person who doesn't forget names, for example, because I have remembered names thousands of times and forgotten them only once or twice. But for the majority of people, marriage-ending conversations happen only once, if at all. If you choose to conduct yours on a mobile phone, in a Leeds car park, then you cannot really claim that it is unrepresentative, in the same way that Lee Harvey Oswald couldn't really claim that shooting presidents wasn't like him at all. Sometimes we have to be judged by our one-offs.

4. I am in a car park in Leeds when I tell my husband I don't want to be married to him anymore. David isn't even in the car park with me. He's at home, looking after the kids, and I have only called him to remind him that he should write a note for Molly's class teacher. The other bit just sort of slips out. This is a mistake, obviously. Even though I am, apparently, and to my immense surprise, the kind of person who tells her husband that she doesn't want to be married to him anymore, I really didn't think that I was the kind of person to say so in a car park, on a mobile phone. That particular self-assessment will now have to be revised, clearly. I can describe myself as the kind of person who doesn't forget names, for example, because I have remembered names thousands of times and forgotten them only once or twice. But for the majority of people, marriage-ending conversations happen only once, if at all. If you choose to conduct yours on a mobile phone, in a Leeds car park, then you cannot really claim that it is unrepresentative, in the same way that Lee Harvey Oswald couldn't really claim that shooting presidents wasn't like him at all. Sometimes we have to be judged by our one-offs.

5. Corpus approaches to literature ?
Corpus Linguistics 2005
Oxford Workshop 2006
Pala 2006
Corpus Linguistics 2007
Corpus style mailing list

6. Literature in Corpora ? naturalness, mainstream, repeated patterns
in a general corpus a literary text will disappear below the waves (Sinclair 2007)
a novel as a unit of meaning (world of the text)
text length and balance
copyright
More by the same publisher (cf. BoE), levelling-out effect, with all these issues better stay away from literature

7. Literature and computers
“the gap is still immense between what readers
can do effortlessly, and what a computer can do.
Scholars interested in calling on a computer to
aid their research are limited to a very narrow
range of possible operations, and such
operations still fall largely outside the mainstream
work of literary scholarship.” (Miall 1996: online)

8. Literature and language descriptions / grammars
“Literature is a prime example of language in use; no systematic apparatus can claim to describe language if it does not embrace the literature also; and not as a freakish development, but as a natural specialization of categories which are required in other parts of the descriptive system. Further, the literature must be describable in terms which accord with the priorities of literary critics.” (Sinclair 2004: 51)

9. Literariness?
“a cline of literariness in language use with some uses of language being marked as more literary than others in certain domains and for certain judges within that domain”
(Carter 2004: 69)

10. Corpus stylistics: corpus linguistics + literary stylistics ?
criticism of literary stylistics
corpus-based vs. corpus-driven:
stylistics checklist (nouns, verbs, simple sentences,
cohesion, etc.) or challenging linguistic
categories (lexical items, patterns)
Challenge the categories

11. Corpus stylistics: corpus linguistics + literary stylistics ?
style is “distinctive: in essence, the set or sum of linguistic features that seem to be characteristic: whether of register, genre, or period, etc” ( Wales 2001: 371)
can be interpreted in CL terms: corpus work is based on comparison

12. Corpus stylistics: corpus linguistics + literary stylistics ?
the description of deviations from linguistic norms (Leech 1985)
can be interpreted in CL terms:
primary deviation: norms of the language as a whole
secondary deviation: norms of literary composition, e.g. author, genre
tertiary deviation: internal, norms of a text

13. characterising meanings of words
word out of
textual context
KWIC
word in
a specific text ?

14. Local textual functions
local: apply to (a group of) lexical items in a (group of) texts
textual: focus on lexical items in relation to features of texts

15. Clusters as pointers to local textual functions
Repetition as evidence of functional relevance.
A cluster is a sequence of words that are used repeatedly (at the same time, on the one hand .. on the other hand, at the end of the ….)

16. Clusters: counting and comparing (norms and deviations)
at the end of the is one of the most frequent 5-word
clusters English
it appeared to me that occurs 7x in Great
Expectations

17. Clusters: counting and comparing (norms and deviations)
General corpora
Dickens corpus: ~ 4.5 million words, 23 texts
19th century novel corpus (19C): ~ 4.5 million words, 29 texts, 18 authors
key clusters

18. Striking and long clusters in Dickens: 51 8-word clusters (min. 5)
THE ANGLO-BENGALEE DISINTERESTED LOAN AND LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY (8 words, MC)
NOT TO PUT TOO FINE A POINT UPON IT (9 words, BH)
(THE) UNITED METROPOLITAN IMPROVED HOT MUFFIN AND CRUMPET BAKING AND PUNCTUAL DEVLIVERY COMPANY (13 words, NN)

19. corpus-driven categories for the 66 key clusters (dynamic groups, ad hoc labels)
Speech 14
As if 6
Body parts 9
Time and place 5
Rest 12

20. Labels D 19C THE FATHER OF THE MARSHALSEA 45 THE PERSON OF THE HOUSE
THE PERSON OF THE HOUSE 37
THE LADY OF THE CARAVAN 22
MAN OF THE NAME OF 1
THE OLD MAN WITH A 21
CAPTAIN GILLS SAID MR TOOTS 20
MY DEAR SAID THE JEW 19
MR PICKWICK AND HIS FRIENDS
GENTLEMAN IN THE WHITE WAISTCOAT 18
THE GENTLEMAN IN THE WHITE 17
HOW NOT TO DO IT 16

21. Speech D 19C DO ME THE FAVOUR TO 31 WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY 73 15
WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY 73 15
BEG YOUR PARDON SIR SAID 25
UPON MY WORD AND HONOUR 1
I BEG YOUR PARDON SIR 56 11
HOW DO YOU FIND YOURSELF 23
HOW DO YOU DO MR 29 2
YOU BE SO GOOD AS 19
WHAT I AM GOING TO 3
AM GLAD TO SEE YOU 24
Speech clusters contain pronouns or possessives

22. Body part clusters D 19C HIS HANDS IN HIS POCKETS 90 13
WITH HIS HANDS IN HIS 60 12
HANDS IN HIS POCKETS AND 40 5
WITH HIS HAND TO HIS 31 2
LAYING HIS HAND UPON HIS 22 1
HIS HEAD AS IF HE 18
THE PALMS OF HIS HANDS 17
HIS HEAD ON ONE SIDE 30 4
HIS HAND AS IF HE 15
Dickens shows preferences for clusters

23. As if D 19C AS IF HE WOULD HAVE 41 2 AS IF HE WERE A 45 7
AS IF HE WERE GOING 32 3
IF HE WERE GOING TO 26
AS IF IT WERE A 72 23
Speech clusters contain pronouns or possessives

24. Time and place D 19C ON THE TOP OF HIS 21 AT THE UPPER END OF 23 1
AT THE UPPER END OF 23 1
ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE OF 54 15
AFTER A GREAT DEAL OF 16
THE OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE 70 26
Speech clusters contain pronouns or possessives

25. IN THE COURSE OF THE
A QUARTER OF AN HOUR
AT THE BOTTOM OF THE
IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
AT THE TOP OF THE
ON THE OTHER SIDE OF
AT THE END OF THE
THE OTHER SIDE OF THE
UP AND DOWN THE ROOM

26. What do (key) clusters tell us?
Dickens uses more 5 word-clusters.
Dickens seems to like certain clusters..
Why?

27. Local textual functions: body part clusters
Contextualising
Highlighting

28. Details of local textual functions
Contextualising
'You see, Mr Richard,' said Brass, thrusting his hands in his pockets, and rocking himself to and fro on his stool, 'the fact is, … (Old Curiosity Shop)
'Let me see then,' resumed Mr Boffin, with his hand to his chin. 'It was Secretary that you named; wasn't it?'
(Our Mutual Friend)
"Eh? What do you say I have got of my own?" asked Mr. Smallweed with his hand to his ear.
(Bleak House)

29. Highligthing
He was the meekest of his sex, the mildest of little men. He sidled in and
out of a room, to take up the less space. He walked as softly as the Ghost
in Hamlet, and more slowly. He carried his head on one side, partly in
modest depreciation of himself, partly in modest propitiation of
everybody else. It is nothing to say that he hadn't a word to throw at a
dog. He couldn't have thrown a word at a mad dog. He might have offered
him one gently, or half a one, or a fragment of one; for he spoke as slowly
as he walked; but he wouldn't have been rude to him, and he couldn't
have been quick with him, for any earthly consideration. Mr. Chillip,
looking mildly at my aunt with his head on one side, and making her a
little bow, said, in allusion to the jewellers' cotton, as he softly
touched his left ear: 'Some local irritation, ma'am?‘
(David Copperfield)

30. 'That little man of a doctor, with his head on one
side,' said my aunt, 'Jellips, or whatever his name
was, what was he about?

31. Character
Clusters associated with the character
Mr Snagsby
NOT TO PUT TOO FINE, PUT TOO FINE A POINT,
TO PUT TOO FINE A, FINE A POINT UPON IT,
TOO FINE A POINT UPON
Mr Guppy
MAN OF THE NAME OF, OF THE NAME OF
GUPPY, YOUNG MAN OF THE NAME, THE
YOUNG MAN OF THE
CIRCUMSTANCES OVER WHICH I HAVE, OVER
WHICH I HAVE NO, WHICH I HAVE NO CONTROL
YOUR LADYSHIP SAYS MR GUPPY
Mr Bagnet
OLD GIRL SAYS MR BAGNET, BUT I NEVER
OWN TO, I NEVER OWN TO IT, NEVER OWN TO
IT BEFORE, BEFORE HER DISCIPLINE MUST BE,
HER DISCIPLINE MUST BE MAINTAINED, IT
BEFORE HER DISCIPLINE MUST, OWN TO IT
BEFORE HER, THE OLD GIRL SAYS MR, TO IT
BEFORE HER DISCIPLINE

32. Mr Jellyby
HIS HEAD AGAINST THE WALL, WITH HIS HEAD AGAINST THE
Mr Bucket
SIR LEICESTER DEDLOCK BARONET I
BY SIR LEICESTER DEDLOCK BARONET
NOW SIR LEICESTER DEDLOCK BARONET
INSPECTOR BUCKET OF THE DETECTIVE
Mr George
YOUR FRIEND IN THE CITY
I ASK YOUR PARDON SIR
Richard
AS WELL AS ANYTHING ELSE, DO AS WELL AS ANYTHING ELSE
Esther
I THOUGHT IT BEST TO
WHEN WE CAME TO THE

33. Mr Vholes
IN THE VALE OF TAUNTON
Mr Jarndyce
HAVE SOMETHING TO SAY ABOUT, SOMETHING TO SAY ABOUT IT, WILL HAVE SOMETHING TO SAY
Miss Flite
I EXPECT A JUDGMENT SHORTLY
Charley
IF YOU PLEASE MISS SAID
Chadband
IN A SPIRIT OF LOVE
RIGHT THAT I SHOULD BE
YOU ARE TO US A
Grandfather Smallweed
MY FRIEND IN THE CITY
TO LOOK AFTER THE PROPERTY
Krook
MY NOBLE AND LEARNED BROTHER Jo
WOS WERY GOOD TO ME

34. And she rings for Mercury to show the young
man of the name of Guppy out. But in that house, in that same moment, there happens to be an old man of the name of Tulkinghorn. And that old man, coming with his quiet footstep to the library, has his hand at that moment on the handle of the door--comes in--and comes face to face with the young man as he is leaving the room.
(Bleak House, Chapter 33)

35. Example of Bleak House Labels most frequent (59 out of 97)
Speech labels (e.g. Esther)
Character pairs and relationships (Guppy, Bagnet, Bucket, Charley, …)
Body part cluster labels (Mr Jellyby)
groups of characters that get labels (cf. Tulkinghorn, Lady Dedlock)
point of view (Snagsby)

36. Local textual functions: Clusters not automatically associated with the same functions in all texts.
5-word clusters useful for comparison: Dickens uses more clusters and cluster functions, in 19C clusters max character-cluster link in 19C = 3)
the 5 functional groups tend to cover 5-word clusters
differences between novels (BH ~ 350,000: word clusters, 59 labels, 2 As If, GE ~180,000: word clusters, 4 As If)
the longer the cluster, the more text-specific, long clusters useful for literary analysis (the young man of the name of Guppy)

37. general Dickens 19C novel
NOTE: in examples already clusters that are not key clusters, because it is the functional groups that are relevant
novel

38. Classification of cluster types into 5 functional groups, figures per 100,000 words
(For each text all 5-word clusters >4 are classified =716 different types)

39. Clusters and characterisation
small numbers have to be treated with caution, clusters can not provide full picture of individual character, clusters only point to what is explicitly there, 5-clusters as formal starting-point
characterisation is a process, forming impressions of characters in our minds (Culpeper 2001)
but: features of characters have to be seen with regard to textual world, behaviour interpreted against norms of the text world

40. Speech clusters: definition
Signals of interaction, formal criteria for definition
(inferences about personality? )
i have no doubt of
i do not know what
i am not at all
you need not be afraid

41. Speech clusters: definition
Speech clusters are not the same as ‘imitation of spoken language’
not a bit of it all 21 FDS/DS
1 are reconciled then?' said Perker. 'Not a bit of it,' answered Wardle; 'she
2 ping her hands and shaking her head. 'Not a bit of it.' 'At least, his name
3 Dick. 'No I haven't,' she returned, 'not a bit of it. Don't you mind about
4 ing her hands, and shaking her head. 'Not a bit of it.' 'Handford then,' su
of course it's not. Is it in Africa? Not a bit of it. Is it in America? YOU
on't believe it,' cried the gentleman, 'not a bit of it. It's an excuse not t

42. all that sort of thing tendency for FDS/DS but:
Mr. Pickwick's upright and honourable bearing, coupled with
that force and energy of speech which so eminently distinguished
him, would have carried conviction to any reasonable mind; but,
unfortunately, at that particular moment, the mind of Mr. Peter
Magnus was in anything but reasonable order. Consequently,
instead of receiving Mr. Pickwick's explanation as he ought to
have done, he forthwith proceeded to work himself into a red-
hot, scorching, consuming passion, and to talk about what was
due to his own feelings, and all that sort of thing; adding force to
his declamation by striding to and fro, and pulling his hair--
amusements which he would vary occasionally, by shaking his
fist in Mr. Pickwick's philanthropic countenance.

43. But I never own to it before her. Discipline must be maintained.
Speech clusters are not the same as the ‘speech tics’, ‘character tags’, or idiolects described in Dickens criticism
I‘ll tell you wot it all 6 in PP
but I never own to all 6 in BH
But I never own to it before her. Discipline must be maintained.
(character tags and flat characters: same behaviour in different situations)

44. politeness promoting social harmony (cf
politeness promoting social harmony (cf. Leech 1983, Brown & Levinson 1987)
am delighted to see you
am glad to see you
am much obliged to you
beg your pardon sir
how do you do mr
I wish you good night

45. impoliteness: attacking face (cf. Culpeper 1996)
what have you got to ...
Now, it so happened that Mr. Fang was at that moment perusing a
leading article in a newspaper of the morning, ... He was out of
temper; and he looked up with an angry scowl.
'Who are you?' said Mr. Fang.
The old gentleman pointed, with some surprise, to his card.
'Officer!' said Mr. Fang, tossing the card contemptuously away
with the newspaper. 'Who is this fellow?'
'My name, sir,' said the old gentleman, speaking like a
gentleman, 'my name, sir, is Brownlow.

46. 'Officer!' said Mr. Fang, throwing the paper on one side, 'what's
this fellow charged with?'
'He's not charged at all, your worship,' replied the officer. 'He
appears against this boy, your worship.'
His worship knew this perfectly well; but it was a good annoyance,
and a safe one.
....
'Now,' said Fang, 'what's the charge against this boy? What have
you got to say, sir?’
...
'Swear the man,' growled Mr. Fang. with a very ill grace. 'Now,
man, what have you got to say?'

47. what have you got to (21) what have you got to say for yourself ..
what have you got to say to me ...
power relationships of characters (not only magistrate)
categories of characters

48. pointers to impoliteness and conflict
DCorp C
what do you mean by
what do you want here
(cf. also key clusters)

49. (OMF) The respected Mr Lammle was a bully, by nature and by
usual practice. Perceiving, as Fledgeby's affronts
cumulated, that conciliation by no means answered the
purpose here, he now directed a scowling look into
Fledgeby's small eyes for the effect of the opposite
treatment. Satisfied by what he saw there, he burst into a
violent passion and struck his hand upon the table,
making the china ring and dance.
'You are a very offensive fellow, sir,' cried Mr Lammle,
rising.
'You are a highly offensive scoundrel. What do you mean
by this behaviour?'
[…]
'I say,' repeated Fledgeby, with laborious explanatory
politeness, 'I beg your pardon.’
(OMF)

50. 'Now, sir,' said Mr Dorrit, turning round upon him and
seizing him by the collar when they were safely alone.
'What do you mean by this?'
The amazement and horror depicted in the unfortunate
John's face--for he had rather expected to be embraced
next--were of that powerfully expressive nature that Mr
Dorrit withdrew his hand and merely glared at him.
'How dare you do this?' said Mr Dorrit. 'How do you
presume to come here? How dare you insult me?'
....
'I humbly beg your pardon, sir. ...
context shows function

51. ... Mrs Quilp, to whom, after contemplating her for
some time in silence, he communicated a violent
start by suddenly yelling out--'Halloa!'
'Oh, Quilp!' cried his poor little wife, looking up. 'How you frightened me!'
'I meant to, you jade,' returned the dwarf. 'What do you want here? ...

52. aggression as personality trait, villains, hostile relationships but also local context: example of PP
positive impoliteness, abuse, paraphrases

53. … Dickens very conveniently was a prolific writer…

54. Joint work with Dan McIntyre
5 Bonds a bit more than Bleak House, Casino less than 50,000

55. Aims of the Bond Project
Why Bond?
popular fiction
under-represented within stylistics (though see Ryder 1999; Montoro 2007)
Some literary critical interest (Lindner 2003, Comentale et al. 2005) though considerable lack of focus on the text
Why focus on Casino Royale?
First book in the series; film version released this year, bestseller
What questions do we want to investigate?
What are the stylistic characteristics of Casino Royale?
How is the character of Bond constructed linguistically?
Does a corpus stylistic analysis tie in with literary critical comment on Bond? P

56. Key semantic domains via Wmatrix
assigns semantic tags, 21 discourse fields
Corpus based and corpus driven, groupings for key words,

57. Top 10 key semantic domains
Casino Royale compared against BNC Written Sampler
Semantic domain
Log-likelihood value
Examples
(1) Pronouns
it, he, his, him
(2) Anatomy and physiology
body, arm, profile, chin
(3) Games
391.55
casino, gambler, croupier
(4) Light
348.72
light, illuminated, sunshine
(5) Unmatched
217.84
salle, privee, caisse
(6) Furniture and household fittings
171.18
table, stool, pillow, bed
(7) Degree
146.83
as [high as], as [serious as]
(8) Parts of buildings
137.51
vault, passages, doors
(9) Location and direction
131.71
away from, top, left
(10) Darkness
104.00
dark, unlit, darkness

58. References to Bond’s BODY
Given the precoccupation with Bond’s body in the book, it’s perhaps not surprising to find this translated into the latest screen version!!!
Complemented with key word analysis… Key words more what Mike…

59. Key words: building blocks for the world of the text
fewer key words and more selective than Wmatrix
183 words key words
in category to start analysis
‘Anatomy and physiology’
groups of key words built bottom-up (by means of
concordancing)

60. Names (people and places)
Bond, Bond’s M
Chiffre, Chiffre’s, Le
Vesper, Versper’s, Lynd
Pont, du
Mathis
Splendide, Paris, Jamaica, Leningrad

61. physical aspects of the casino (table, cards, plaques, shoe, rail)
people and their roles in the casino (players, croupier, spectators)
aspects of games (maximums, bet, slipped)
numbers and money (neuf, notes)
French words and phrases in the games
Messieurs, mesdames, les jeux sont faits. Un banco de cinq cent mille.
KWs need to be looked at in context, as they can have various meaning and the most obvious may not be the one for the book.

62. Spying gunmen, gunman, organization, smoke-bomb,
Spying gunmen, gunman, organization, smoke-bomb, double, bureau, agent, memorandum, 007, MWD
trace
… at Royale trying to trace the Jamaican millionaire …
… it would take hours to trace the ownership to him
… There was no trace of the gunman, …
… Next he examined a faint trace of talcum powder on the inner rim …
 effort to find out, mystery
… with a trace of impatience …
… Le Chiffre showed no trace of emotion. …
 characterisation
some of them could also be grouped as names
trace has several meanings, and may be key here because of the occurrences of [example]
both VB and N
second set more ‘novel specific’ in general

63. concierge, patron, sommelier places boulevard, night-club,
Settings and props
people/jobs
concierge, patron, sommelier
places
boulevard, night-club,
coast, villa, side-road
food, drink,
champagne, caviar
clothes
pyjama-coat, dinner-jacket
furniture
arm-chair
chair
Vesper and Bond having a meal
Le Chiffre’s benzedrine inhaler
cane chair and cane carpet-beater in torture scene
settings and props provide context for overall action, possible to attempt grouping according to semantic fields
is this similar to Wmatrix only by hand? So is this useful ?
Wmatrix ‘carpet-beater’ - furniture and household fittings
in the novel but can also focus on specific scenes, or items that appear less easy to classify

64. Themes and characterisation
luck A1.4 Chance, luck
black O4.3 Colour and colour patterns
villains G2.1- Crime
evil G2.2- unethical
all villains (7) and most evil (15 of 19) in chapter 20
Themes and characterisation:
Part of the meanings ‘conventional metaphorical’ -> black, selection in novel

65. 2) Bond and Vesper/women
Key word luck
1) Bond as a gambler
… Bond had always been a gambler. ..., and he accepted the fact, he would be brought to his knees by love or by luck…. (Chapter 7)
2) Bond and Vesper/women
“Perhaps I will bring you luck” (Chapter 5)
… he felt vague disquiet. On an impulse he touched wood….
(Chapter 5)
luck not simply in category ‘games’

66. Key words black, villains, evil The villains and heroes get all mixed up….. Now in order to tell the difference between good and evil, we have manufactured two images representing the extremes – representing the deepest black and the purest white – and we call them God and the Devil (chapter 20) Clothes Vesper: black dress, black velvet skirt, black velvet ribbon on her hat, black hair Bond: black satin tie, black hair
not surprisingly new meanings, but the way they link in with each other in the text contributes to the creation of the world of the text
once you begin looking at these key words, it seems a very strong/obvious picture, velvet = deceivingly nice, smooth, Vesper as traitor and danger
key scence, wants to resign

67. in KW list Anatomy and physiology category not so clearly visible, but: 'Well, when you get back to London you will find there are other Le Chiffres seeking to destroy you and your friends and your country. […] And now that you have seen a really evil man, you will know how evil they can be and you will go after them to destroy them in order to protect yourself and the people you love. […] You may want to be certain that the target really is black, but there are plenty of really black targets around. There's still plenty for you to do. And you'll do it. And when you fall in love and have a mistress or a wife and children to look after, it will seem all the easier.' Mathis opened the door and stopped on the threshold. 'Surround yourself with human beings, my dear James. They are easier to fight for than principles.’ He laughed. 'But don't let me down and become human yourself. We would lose such a wonderful machine.’ (Chapter 20)
also linked through black clothes
key scence (cf. luck scene)

68. Conclusions
corpus findings can provide insights into the ‘world of a novel’
the need for local descriptions
linking linguistic and literary discussion

69. Future work: bottom-up and top-down: reception effects on reader
script and film

70. Further detail….
Mahlberg, M "Corpora and translation studies: textual functions of lexis in Bleak House and in a translation of the novel into German". In V. Intonti, G. Todisco, and M. Gatto (eds), La Traduzione. Lo Stato dell'Arte. Translation. The State of the Art. Ravenna: Longo,
“Clusters, key clusters and local textual functions in Dickens”, Corpora.
“Corpus stylistics: bridging the gap between linguistic and literary studies” In Hoey, M., Mahlberg, M., Stubbs, M., Teubert, W. forthcoming. Text, Discourse and Corpora. Theory and Analysis. London: Continuum.
-- forthcoming, 2007 “A corpus stylistic perspective on Dickens’ Great Expectations”. In M. Lambrou and P. Stockwell. Contemporary Stylistics. London: Continuum.