1. EDU 5900 KAEDAH PENYELIDIKAN

2. Kaedah Penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto

3. OBJEKTIF
Menerangkan konsep, tujuan dan kepentingan kaedah penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto.
Menilai kesesuaian penggunaan kaedah tersebut bagi permasalahan kajian yang dikemukakan.
Merancang langkah-langkah pelaksanaan kajian mengikut kaedah tertentu.

4. Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen The word "quasi" means as if or almost, so a quasi-experiment means almost a true experiment.

5. Kenapa Quasi-Eksperimen?
Dinamakan Quasi-Eksperimental kerana penyelidikan yang dilakukan hampir menyerupai reka bentuk eksperimen, kecuali tiada pembahagian secara rawak dilakukan.
Pembahagian rawak sukar dijalankan dalam keadaan tertentu seperti pemboleh ubah atribut (jantina, ras, pendapatan penjaga dll) kerana akan menjejaskan pemboleh ubah seperti rasa terasing dalam kumpulan baru dan sebagainya. Oleh itu reka bentuk ini digunakan.
Kaedah reka bentuk quasi-eksperimen bukan sebenar-benar eksperimen kerana tiada pembahagian rawak dilakukan.
Gunakan kumpulan sedia wujud dalam (intact group).

6. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
are usually constructions that already exist in the real world. Those designs that fall into the quasi-experimental category fall short in some way of the criteria for the true experimental group. A quasi-experimental design will have some sort of control and experimental group, but these groups probably weren't randomly selected. Random selection is usually where true-experimental and quasi-experimental designs differ.
Some advantages of the quasi-experimental design include:
Greater external validity (more like real world conditions)
Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints
Disadvantages:
Not as many variables controlled (less causal claims)

7. Ciri-Ciri Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen
Dua atau lebih daripada kumpulan responden yang tidak diagih secara rawak.
Memerlukan kawalan terhadap pemboleh ubah luaran yang tegas.
Mengutamakan perbezaan antara kumpulan responden secara semula jadi.

8. Perbezaan antara eksperimen dengan quasi-eksperimen.
True and Quasi-Experimental Designs.
Aktiviti bacaan: Sila baca artikel yang bertajuk;
EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

9. Kaedah Ex Post Facto Perbandingan Sebab (Causal Comparative)

10. Ex post facto
The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".

11. Causal-Comparative Studies
Go beyond relationships/associations to examine cause-and-effects.
Two types of these studies:
Ex Post Facto
Correlational 13 13

12. ‘from what is done afterwards’
Ex post facto
Ex post facto
The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".
‘from what is done afterwards’
Ex-post-facto designs ("after the fact")

13. Lihat contoh dalam Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 230
Definisi:
Kaedah ini digunakan untuk mengenal pasti punca atau penyebab (IV) sesuatu kesan (DV) yang diperhati dimana IV adalah sesuatu yang telah berlaku dan tidak boleh dimanipulasikan(diluar kawalan penyelidik.
Casual Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable on another.
Lihat contoh dalam Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 230

14. Causal-Comparative Studies
Important Issues:
Primary purpose should be developing cause-and-effect relationships when experimentation is not possible
The “intervention” (IV) must have already occurred
Must identify and consider extraneous variables
Differences between the groups not due to the independent variable should be controlled
Be careful with causal conclusions 17 17

15. Reka bentuk ini menekankan sebab yang dijangka.
Contoh 1: Adakah program pendidikan pemulihan meningkatkan prestasi 3M murid-murid yang lemah?
Contoh 2: Adakah program kaunseling individu meningkatkan motivasi murid bermasalah?
Tafsiran sebab-akibat (cause-effect relationship)
Penyelidik perlu memastikan:
Terdapat hubungan antara A (IV) dan B (DV);
A datang dahulu daripada B;
Tidak ada kesan pemboleh ubah luaran terhadap A, B atau interaksi A dan B.

16. Tiga Jenis Bukti Yang Perlu Untuk Mengesahkan Hubungan Sebab-akibat
Perhubungan statistik yang signifikan antara pemboleh ubah bebas dan bersandar wujud dengan sah.
Pemboleh ubah bebas wujud sebelum pemboleh ubah bersandar.
Pemboleh ubah lain tidak mempengaruhi pemboleh ubah bersandar.

17. Two Basic Approaches to Ex Post Facto Research
Begin with subjects who differ on an independent variable (such as their principal instrument/voice) and study how they differ on dependent variables (such as levels of performance anxiety or music theory test scores).
Begin with subjects who differ on a dependent variable (such as attrition from music--comparing those students who drop out of music with those who persist) and study how they differ on various independent variables (such as how much they practice, how they feel about their relationship with their teacher, how they feel about themselves as musicians, etc.).

18. This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and the investigator comes in "after the fact."
For example, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than students from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from a certain town" explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc.

19. Studies that investigate possible cause and effect relationships by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in time for plausible causal factors.
The ex post facto design is a variation of the "after-only with control group" experimental design.
The chief difference is that both the experimental and control groups are selected after the experimental variable is introduced rather than before.
Explores possible causes and effects.
The independent variable is not manipulated, it has already been applied.
Focuses first on the effect, then attempts to determine what caused the observed effect.

20. Characteristics of Ex Post Facto
Researcher takes the effect/dependent variable and examines it retrospectively
Establishes causes, relationships or associations and their meanings.
Researcher has little to no control over independent variables.
Flexible by nature.
There is a control or comparison group.
Intact groups are used.
The treatment is not manipulated, it has already occurred.
There may be both “treatment” and “control” groups, however these will be existing, not assigned by the researcher.
There is no manipulation of conditions

21. Ex Post Facto research
Researcher cannot manipulate some variables and therefor selects participants that have certain values for those variables by themselves (gender, personality, illness, ...)

22. The experimenter does not manipulate the IV
The experimenter does not manipulate the IV... that is subjects cannot be randomly assigned to the levels of the IV - rather they assign themselves because the IV is not manipulated, it also qualifies as a descriptive technique

23. When to use this?
You can use this where more powerful experimental designs are not possible; when you are unable to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause and effect relationships directly, or when control variables except a single independent variable may be unrealistic and artificial.

24. Ex post facto advantages and disadvantages
Show a correlation where more rigorous experimentation is not possible
Exploratory tool
Useful to avoid articiality in the research.
Shows cause and effect relationships
Disadvantages
Lack of control for independent variable and randomizing subjects.
Never certain if causative factor has been included or identified
Relationship between two factors does not est. cause and effect.
May be regarded as too flexible.

25. Melibatkan perbandingan antara kumpulan yang sedia wujud
Contoh: Menyelidik murid-murid yang menonton rancangan belajar bahasa Inggeris melalui siaran TV dan membandingkan prestasi mereka untuk mengkaji sama ada menonton program bahasa Inggeris di TV dapat membantu meningkatkan pencapaian mata pelajaran tersebut. Murid-murid dikumpulkan dalam beberapa kumpulan mengikut banyaknya mereka menonton siaran tersebut.

26. Examples of Ex Post Facto Studies
What is the effect of day care on the social skills of children?
What is the relationship between participation in extracurricular activities and self concept?
"smoking causes cancer”

27. Depression in rape victims
Ex Post Facto - example
Depression in rape victims

28. Research design X1 = rape victim X2 = control
Yij = average depression score in group i, at time j
indicates possible unequality of groups in both conditions

29. Tips…
Kajian perbandingan sebab perlu digunakan apabila kajian eksperimen tidak dapat dilakukan.
Keadaan sebab mesti berlaku sebelumnya.
Pemboleh ubah ekstranous perlu dikenal pasti dan dicatat.
Perbezaan antara kumpulan perlu dikawal.
Hubungan sebab-akibat perlu dinyatakan dengan berhati-hati!
Baca Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 235 (Jadual 12.1)

30. MIXED METHODS DESIGN

31. What Is Mixed Methods Research?
A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods in a single study to understand a research problem.

32. Combined Designs and Uses
Combining quantitative and
qualitative data to understand and explain a research problem better.
Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting
Mixed Methods
Research
Action
Research

33. When to Use Mixed Methods Designs
When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a better understanding of your research problem than either type by itself
When one type of research (qualitative or quantitative) is not enough to address the research problem or answer the research questions.
To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise quantitative study
To build from one phase of a study to another
Explore qualitatively then develop an instrument
Follow-up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain more detailed information

34. Identifying a Mixed Methods Study in the Literature
The title includes words such as “mixed methods” or “multimethod,” etc.
Data collection section indicates both qualitative and quantitative data were collected.
Purpose statement and/or research questions indicate that the researcher intends to collect both quantitative and qualitative data during the study.
Priority or weight: Qualitative, quantitative, or both equally
Sequence of collecting quantitative and qualitative data is indicated
Analyze both data sets
Combined in one analysis (integrated)
Separate analysis

35. A Notation System for Designs
Study #1 QUAL QUAN
+ indicates the simultaneous or concurrent collection
of quantitative and qualitative data
Study #2 QUAN qual
Shows sequential collection of
quantitative and qualitative data
NOTATION USED
Uppercase letters indicate a priority or increased
weight for quantitative and/or qualitative data.
Lowercase letters indicate a lower priority or weight
for either quantitative and/or qualitative data.

36. Types of Mixed Methods Designs
I. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design +
QUAN
Data and Results
QUAL
Data and Results
Interpretation
II. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design
QUAN
Data and Results
qual
Data and Results
Follow-up
III. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
QUAL
Data and Results
quan
Data and Results
Building

37. Mixed Methods Designs: Explanatory Design
Researcher places priority on quantitative (QUAN) data collection and analysis.
Researcher collects quantitative data first in the sequence.
Researcher uses the qualitative data to explain the results of the quantitative data.

38. Mixed Methods Designs: Exploratory Design
Research emphasizes qualitative (QUAL) data rather than quantitative (quan) data.
Researcher has a sequence of data collection that involves collecting qualitative data followed by quantitative data.
Researcher plans on the quantitative data to build on or explain the initial qualitative findings.

39. Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs
Rationale for the design
Collecting quantitative and qualitative data
Priority
Sequence
Data analysis matched to design
Diagram of the procedures

40. Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Rationale
Test findings of first phase
Explain results of first phase in more detail
Provide a more complete understanding than either quantitative or qualitative alone
Collecting both quantitative and qualitative data
Numeric data
Text data

41. Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Priority and Sequence
Equal weight
QUAN carries more weight than qual
QUAL carries more weight than quan
Sequence
Collect both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time
Collect quantitative data first, followed by qualitative data
Collect qualitative data first, followed by quantitative data

42. Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Analysis and Diagram
Analysis matched to design (“mixing”)
Data analysis strategies for triangulation design
Data analysis strategies for exploratory design
Data analysis strategies for explanatory design
Diagram of procedures
Use notation system
Identify priority
Identify sequence

43. Examples of Visual Diagrams
I. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design
QUAN
(Data and Results)
QUAL
(Data and
Results) +
Interpretation
II. Embedded Mixed Methods Design
QUAN
Data and Results
QUAN
(Data and Results)
Interpretation

44. Examples of Visual Diagrams (cont’d)
III. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design
QUAN
(Data and
Results)
qual
(Data and Results)
Follow-up
IV. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
QUAL
(Data and
Results)
quan
(Data and
Results)
Building

45. Steps for Conducting a Mixed Methods Study
Develop quantitative
and qualitative research
questions
Collect quantitative
and qualitative data
Step 4
Step 5
Identify the data
collection strategy and
type of design
Priority
Sequence
Visualization
Step 3
Analyze data
separately or
concurrently
Step 6
Identify a rationale
for a mixed methods
study
Determine if a mixed
methods study is
feasible
Write the report as a
one- or two-phase
study
Step 2
Step 1
Step 7

46. Choosing Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach
Match the approach to the problem
Fit the approach to your audience
Relate the approach to your experiences

47. SEKIAN TERIMA KASIH