1. Chapter 2 History of School Finance

2. Our founding fathers profoundly believed that their new democracy’s health depended on its people’s virtues as right, honorable, ethical individuals as well as knowledgeable citizens.

3. Founding Fathers Believed Public Education Essential
Rousseau noted in 1758 that “public education…is one of the fundamental rules of popular or legitimate government”.
Jean Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse of Political Economy, 1758, translation and introduction by G.D.H. Cole in The Social Contract and Discourses, London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1973), p. 149.
An educated general populace required for its democratic republic’s survival

4. The first American school finance laws date back to the Massachusetts Act of 1642, which required parents and masters to attend to the educational duties of the colony’s sons and servants.

5. “The General Court (the colonial legislature) empowered ‘certain chosen men’ of each town to ascertain, from time to time, if the parents and masters were attending to their educational duties; if the children were being trained in learning and labor and other employments…profitable to the Commonwealth .”
The law also authorized the Selectmen to impose fines on those who were not making such educational provisions.

6. Early U.S. Value in Education
“The child is to be educated, not to advance his personal interest, but because the state will suffer if he is not educated.”

7. “Profitable to the state”
“Profitable” meant that sons and male servants learned to read and understand religious principles while they received training in “learning and labor”. Women stayed home and learned household tasks and embroidery– an obvious Title IX violation
today.
Ellwood Cubberley, The History of Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), p. 34

8. “Ye Olde Deluder Satan” Laws
Within five years of the first school finance law, however, it failed;
The law presumed that those who could read & understand the Bible couldn’t be tempted to follow Satan’s wiles.

9. Different Sized Settlements Had Varying Requirements for Providing Public Schooling
For 50 or more households -
Appoint a reading and writing teacher
Pay what deemed appropriate
For settlements of 100 or more households –
Community taxed property owners to provide a grammar school

10. Towns not meeting this educational requirement faced a financial penalty.

11. Who Paid for Schools?
Founding fathers believed that the wealthy should pay for education’s public and religious functions.
Local government taxed property because people in those days considered land to be a valid measure of wealth.

12. The Law of 1647 Represented a Distinct Step Forward
Not only did the law order towns to establish a school system – elementary for all towns & children, and secondary for youths in the larger towns – but
For the first time among English-speaking people, there was an assertion of the right of the State to require communities to establish and maintain schools. Failure to do so resulted in penalty.

13. The Laws of 1642 & 1647
Represent the foundations upon which our American state public-school systems have been built.
They also established the State’s right to tax for the provision of education.

14. Massachusetts’ Precedent
Establishing property taxes as the basis for funding public schools quickly caught on in other New England colonies. It remains a tradition to this day.

15. Compromise to Appease State’s Rights Advocates & Federalists
Since the first 10 Amendments do not mention “education”, it became a state function.

16. Who is Responsible for Public Schools?
This compromise, however, has far-reaching legal and financial effects today.
State’s rights continues to be a discomforting national issue with keen influence on educational policy and practices.

17. Taxing Property Evolved Somewhat Differently in Various Regions
The middle and southern colonies, for example, subsidized very basic public schools (small facilities, limited curriculum, few students attending)
Mostly churches & parents financed further education.

18. Education = Prosperity
States must invest as heavily in education as their capacity allows if they want future economic prosperity for all its citizens.

19. Regional Evolution of Schools & School Financing
1. Good school
conditions
2. Mixed conditions
3. Pauper &
parochial schools
4. “No action” group

20. Schools’ Evolution Differed in Various Geographic Regions
New England became the first English-speaking area that required children learn how to read
Although religious in inspiration and scope (students would be able to interpret the Bible for themselves and save their immortal souls), knowing how to read and comprehend also allowed individuals to think for themselves and act without offense or injury to others

21. Good School Conditions
Citizens generally valued education and saw its value for the “entire”* populace
Provided public financial support to educate large number of students
Maine
Vermont
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Connecticut
New York
Ohio
* White Male

22. Mixed Conditions Schools
People held conflicting ideas about what education should be and what it should provide for children.
Showed wide variance in their willingness to fund local schools and in resulting education quality.
Indiana
Illinois

23. Pauper & Parochial School
Believed that high-quality schooling was for the elite
Privileged sent their children to church-sponsored (parochial) schools
Community leaders believed that the poor (paupers) deserved a minimal level of education
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
Georgia
South Carolina
Louisiana

24. “No Action” Group
Philosophically, these colonists believed that “government” should play little role in citizens’ or community affairs. Individuals held responsibility for their own actions and well-being, including providing for their children’s education.
These regions took little or no actions establishing public education in their early statehood.
Rhode Island, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Mississippi, and Alabama.
Roger Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his religious beliefs and established Rhode Island. Williams believed that the government should take no action regarding establishing schools.

25. Not All States Fit These Categories
A number of states reflect an amalgam of people and ideas, not fitting one distinct pattern.

26. The BEST Schooling Model
The Good School Conditions
model offered its eligible children
the best learning
opportunities.
States must invest as heavily in education as their capacity allows if they want future economic prosperity for all its citizens.

27. Federal History of School Funding
Even though the Constitution made education a state responsibility, the federal government did not abandon involvement with public schools or leave their financing solely to the states
On the contrary, the federal government heavily promoted and financed education from before the Constitution was ratified

28. Federal Financial Involvement in Education
In 1778 Congress eagerly sought ways to generate revenue for the new country and to pay its war debts. One method involved selling claim to western territories.

29. Ordinance of 1785
New Congressional townships in the western territories should be six miles square (or thirty-six square miles)
The six miles square would be surveyed and divided into thirty-six lots, each of one square mile
Towns could set aside the proceeds from lot number 16 to finance their public schools

30. Early School Financing
Northwest Ordinance of 1787:
Authorized land grants to establish education
Magnificent rhetoric but little guidance about how to carry
it out
Ordinance of 1787:
Conveyed approximately five million acres to land speculators

31. The Ordinance Included:
“Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged.”

32. New States Required to Provide Education
The Northwest Ordinance also established the requisite conditions for territories to become states and included a provision that each state have an education provision within its basic laws.

33. Clarifying the “Sixteenth Section’s” Township Intent
Required monies from this section’s sales be spent for public schools
Started with Ohio
Federal & state roles clarified

34. 4th “Wave” of Federal Policy
States would receive “a 5%” portion of the sale of public lands & states agreed that federal lands within states would be exempt from state taxes
These revenues added to monies available to establish public schools

35. Andrew Jackson’s Presidency
There was a move to decentralize the federal government
In 1836, the Surplus Revenue Deposit Act gave $28 million of federal funds to the states
Much of this windfall was spent for public schools

36. Another Major Federal Financing of U.S. Education
In 1802, Congress enacted legislation establishing the U.S. Military Academy
In 1845, established the Naval Academy
In 1876, founded the Coast Guard Academy
In 1936, founded The Merchant Marine Academy
In 1954, started the U. S. Air Force Academy
This direct investment in schooling illustrated the federal government’s commitment to assure its own security through education.

37. 1862, Congress Established the Morrill Act
Authorized the states to use public land grants to establish and maintain agricultural and mechanical colleges
Assured the country’s economic security by producing knowledgeable managers and planners for the nation’s growth
In 1890, Congress passed the second Morrill Act providing funds to support instruction in the colleges that the first Morrill Act established

38. U.S. Department of Education
Established in 1867
This brought the function of education to a leadership position in the federal government
Later, the Department was “downgraded” to the Office of Education. It continued as part of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare until reestablished as a Department in 1980

39. The 1917 Smith-Hughes Act
During World War I, the government faced large numbers of returning soldiers who needed specific workplace skills
This Act gave states grants to support vocational education
The national government also directed the state’s role in administering this program according to federal standards and funds – a model followed in future federal education grants.

40. States Administer Federal Monies
The national government directed the state’s role in administering this program according to federal standards and funds – a model followed in future federal education grants.

41. 1918, Congress Passed the Vocational Rehabilitation Act
Providing funds to rehabilitate World War I veterans.

42. 1919, Congressional Act to Provide for Further Educational Facilities
Authorized the federal government to sell surplus machine tools to schools for 15 percent of their original purchase price – enabling schools
to have the equipment
needed to give students
“real world” training.

43. 1920, Smith-Bankhead Act
Authorized grants for the states to provide vocational rehabilitation programs.

44. 1935, Agricultural Adjustment Act
Congress and the Executive Branch desperately sought the quick-fix to save the crashing economy and relieve citizens’ economic despair.
Set up the School Lunch Act – providing food to schools so it could feed its students (because their families might not).
Response to Great Depression.
In 1946, the National School Lunch Act enhanced this assistance to schools.

45. 1941, Amendment to the Lanham Act of 1940
Providing federal aid for the construction, maintenance, and operation of schools located in federally impacted areas…
(where U.S. military families lived and worked on government-owned land and facilities and paid no state or local property taxes).

46. 1943, Vocational Rehabilitation Act
Public Law 78-16
Provided assistance to disabled veterans returning home from WW II

47. 1944, The G.I. Bill Servicemen’s Readjustment Act
Provided education benefits to military returnees as they reentered civilian life
By providing
an attractive education alternative to employment, the GI Bill delayed many of the returning veterans from flooding the labor market and stalling economic recovery.
This remarkable legislation had far-reaching consequences for American democracy, education, and the scope and quality of middle class life at mid-century and beyond. First, World War II brought the United States out of the Great Depression. Our country admirably geared up for the war machine. With thousands of servicemen returning to the civilian workforce, the economy, in all probability, could not have supported the worker surplus.

48. G.I. Bill
Offered a living stipend while veterans attended school, effectively transitioning the potential labor glut into a student cohort earning their living while learning new work knowledge and skills
Enabled an educational investment in our country’s infrastructure by enhancing the workforce’s job skills
The world had changed during the war. Our country had moved into the Nuclear Age and many recognized the need for enhanced workforce knowledge and skills. The GI Bill provided just such an incentive.

49. G.I. Bill, cont.
Effectively supplied a massive education infusion to citizens, raising the education bar, and expanding learning horizons, career, and lifestyle opportunities for these returnees and for future generations.
Last, less than half the United States population graduated from high school prior to World War II.

50. Federal Property and Administrative Services Act
Initially, schools and colleges felt a bit overwhelmed with the newfound demand for their services, placing a drain on resources.
The Act allowed the national government to donate surplus federal property to educational institutions.
Congress effectively recognized the financial burden that localities and states faced and spread that financial burden over the entire country by taking equipment bought with federal (yours and my tax) dollars and donating them to schools.

51. After WWII
America believed herself to be the most powerful nation in military and economic strength.
After World War II, the national economy moved forward well. Colleges and universities bristled with activity. Levittowns and other planned suburban communities sprang up, offering home ownership to thousands of families.

52. Following Sputnik in 1957, however, the nation faced a wrenching reality check.
The Russians became the first country to orbit outer space. Serious national questions arose whether public schools had enough direction and resources to keep our global superiority[1].
[1] One wonders whether if these events had occurred in the last fifteen years, politicians may have wanted to scrap the public schools instead of providing a massive capital infusion as they did with the NDEA.

53. National Defense Education Act
The NDEA provided economic assistance to states and individual school systems to “beef up” science and math instruction, foreign languages, and other crucial subjects.

54. NDEA Also Supplied States with Resources Including
Statistical reporting
Guidance & counseling
Testing
Vocational & technical programs
Higher education student loans & fellowships
Foreign language study & training
New teaching media

55. Education of Mentally Retarded Children Act
Train teachers to work successfully with disabled students.
Prior to this time, only a few states distributed funds to localities to supplement educational programs for handicapped students. Most families with disabled children had to find their own help.

56. 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Public Law
Intended the federal government to pay 40% of the funding necessary for special education services
States & localities to pay the rest
Today, the federal government pays 17% of special education costs instead of the 40% promised in national legislation

57. 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Categorical Aid Programs: Title I
Provided supplemental school program grants for children of low-income families
Intended to help economically disadvantaged students succeed (catch up with middle class and affluent peers) in the regular school program
Provided additional educations resources to improve their basic and advanced skills to achieve grade-level proficiency
Included extra or school-wide activities encouraging heavy parent involvement
This Great Society legislation is arguably the most important Congressional action to fund education programs up to that time. An offshoot of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Act contained five title categorical aid programs specifically designed to finance education for certain student populations.

58. Government Distributes These Funds in 2 Ways
Basic Grants
Flow through the State Education Agency (SEA) to localities based on a formula involving the school district’s number of eligible students and the average state per-pupil expenditure.
Concentration Grants
Available only to restricted populations and represent a smaller percentage of the overall funding.
Particularly useful to school systems with high percentages of disadvantaged students.

59. Title I
Title I provided supplemental school program grants for children of low-income families
This program intended to help economically disadvantaged students succeed in the regular school program by improving basic and advanced skills and achieving grade-level proficiency
The program could include supplemental or school-wide activities encouraging heavy parent involvement

60. Title I, cont.
Most Title I funds are basic grants which flow through the State Education Agency (SEA) to localities based on a formula involving the school district’s number of eligible students and the average state per-pupil expenditure
Concentration grants represent a smaller percentage of the overall funding within this Title

61. Title I, cont.
Concentration grants are designed for localities with a high number of eligible students – more than 6,500 students or more than 15% of all students eligible for Title I funding
This is particularly useful to school systems with high percentages of disadvantaged students

62. Title I, cont.
Annual amount of Congressional funds allocated for Title I varies from year to year, depending on political allocation decisions
Requires that school divisions will not receive less than 85% of its previous year’s funding share
Title I money had less buying power in the 1990’s although expected to support learning interventions for more children

63. Title II Grant monies for school library resources, textbooks
& other instructional materials,
including audio-visual equipment
Called the Dwight D.
Eisenhower Mathematics
& Science Education Act

64. Title II Provides presidential awards for outstanding teaching
Funds for magnet schools
Monies for talented and gifted programs
Funds for women’s educational equity
Grants for drug abuse prevention,
dropout prevention,
bilingual education, &
other programs.

65. Other Categorical Grants
Title III
Provided funds for supplementary education centers and services to public and private schools

66. Other Categorical Grants, cont.
Title IV
Allocated funds for regional educational research and training laboratories

67. Other Categorical Grants, cont.
Title V
Provided funds for strengthening state departments of education (otherwise known as State Education Agencies – SEAs)

68. Funding Public Broadcasting
In 1967, Congress passed the Public Broadcasting Act
The Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) was created and assumed a major role in routing federal monies to noncommercial radio and television stations

69. Funding Public Broadcasting
The CPB began program production groups and started Educational Television (ETV) networks
The CPB was responsible for awarding construction grants for educational radio and television facilities
Many of today’s new teachers were raised on programming given its start by the CPB. Those programs include Sesame Street, The Electric Company, and others.

70. Educating Disabled Students
In 1968, the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act, Public Law , was passed. This act provided for the authorization of preschool and early education programs for handicapped children

71. Educating Disabled Students, cont.
Seven years later, in 1975, Public Law , the Education for All Handicapped Children Act provided that all handicapped children have a free, appropriate public education

72. Social Changes & School Funding
In 1970, many federal legislative changes came into being that had their beginning in social changes of the times
The National Commission on School Finance was established under the Elementary and Secondary Education Assistance Programs, Extension, Public Law

73. Social Changes & School Funding, cont.
Office of Education Appropriation Act, Public Law , provided emergency school assistance to desegregating local school districts and schools
The Drug Abuse Education Act of 1970, Public Law , provided funding for the development, demonstration, and evaluation of materials dealing with the many problems of drug abuse

74. Selected Other Federal Funding
In 1986, the Handicapped Children’s Protection Act, Public Law , was passed
This allowed parents of handicapped students to collect the attorney fees in cases brought under the Education of the Handicapped Act

75. Selected Other Federal Funding, cont.
In 1993 the NAEP Assessment Authorization, Public Law , authorized the use of the National Assessment of Educational Progress, the Nation’s Report Card
To be used for the purpose of making state-by-state comparisons of student performance. Country-by-country comparisons had already been made public

76. Selected Other Federal Funding, cont.
In 1996, Congress felt pressure from states and localities regarding legislation that required states and localities to take certain actions that required money without the financial provisions in the acts to cover costs
To that end, the Contract With America: Unfunded Mandates, Public Law 104-4, was passed in an attempt to curb the practice of imposing unfounded federal mandates on states and localities

77. Federal Funding Today
Today, the federal government funds approximately $50 billion dollars for education purposes at the elementary and secondary levels

78. Federal Funding Today, cont.
The federal government has invested more than
$1 trillion in elementary & secondary education from 1969 to 2001 – an average of more than $27.7 billion per year.