1. Self-Determination as a Dropout Prevention Strategy
First Annual Special Education Forum on Dropout Prevention
Orlando, FL
November 3, 2004
Dalun Zhang, Ph.D.
Clemson University

2. Since 1990s, self-determination has received increased attention in the field of special education and disability services

3. Facts about Self-Determination
Individuals with disabilities and their families identified SD as a top need.
The U.S. Department of Education funded numerous SD research projects and SD demonstration projects since 1990.
Most states have incorporated SD into their services and funding priorities

4. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer (1998b) identified 35 curricula that were designed for this purpose; whereas Test, Karvonen, Wood, Browder, and Algozzine (2000) found 60 curricula and 675 other resources.
A number of professional journals devoted a special issue to SD (e.g. The Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, etc.)
Over 450 articles have been published on the topic of self-determination
CEC Pre-Conference Capacity Building Institute 04

5. Self-Determination Movement
Background
Phase I (mid )
Phase II ( present) Federal Mandates Federal Initiatives

6. Background
Graduation from high school is a major milestone for every adolescent because it marks the transition from adolescence to young adulthood
Successful completion of the transition process is, in many cases, a natural and self-perpetuating one for high school students without disabilities. For high school students with disabilities, however, the transition process is often not as natural
Education must play a more critical role in facilitating task development and preparation for adulthood
Follow-up studies of the 1980s and 1990s found disappointing outcomes
Consumers and researcher identified lack of self-determination as a major cause of this disappointing outcomes

7. Phase I
The Phase I period started in the mid-1980s when significant attention was focused on the benefits of empowering consumers
This was a period when people with disabilities and their families organized to assert their rights of citizenship, advocate for social and political change, and demand access to the neighborhoods, jobs, schools and activities enjoyed by persons without disabilities
However, the issues of preference, choice, and personal autonomy received little attention in the field of special education

8. Phase II Phase II started in 1990 when the IDEA was passed.
Characterized by federal legislation and federal initiative pertaining to self-determination

9. Federal Mandates Pertaining to SD
IDEA:
…. be planned based on the student’s preferences and interests
Students must be included in their transition planning meeting
Rehabilitation Act:
disability is … in no way diminishes the rights to live independently, enjoy self-determination, make choices, contribute to society, ……..

10. Consensus
As a result of consumers’ efforts and federal mandates and initiatives, three agreements were reached in early 1990s:
Self-determination is a critical outcome of the transition process for students with disabilities and must be part of the career development process that begins in early childhood and continues throughout adult life
People with disabilities have the same right to self-determination as is available to all Americans
Professionals working across various disciplines in the field of disability services need to provide opportunities for students with disabilities to experience choice and exercise self-determination.

11. What is Self-determination?
Historically, self-determination referred to the right of nations or ethnic minorities to self-governance. Derived from this original meaning, self-determination, has been appropriated by disability rights advocates and people with disabilities to refer to their “rights” to have control over their lives.

12. The present use of self-determination within special education emphasizes empowerment of individuals with disabilities.

13. Self-determination as an Educational Outcome
Wehmeyer conceptualizes self-determination as an educational outcome. He defines self-determination as “acting as the primary causal agent in one’s life and making choices and decisions free from undue external influences or interference” - Wehmeyer, M. L. (1996). Self-determination as an educational outcome.

14. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer (1998) define self-determination as:
A combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one’s strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. When acting on the basis of these skills and attitudes, individuals have greater ability to take control of their lives and assume the role of successful adults in our society.

15. My reviews of various definitions yielded 6 common points:
Self-determination concerns an individual’s control over his or her own life;
In order to control one’s own life, an individual needs to have certain attitudes, characteristics, and abilities;
An individual needs to interact with the environment in an appropriate way;
A person needs to have freedom and independence;
One needs to know and value oneself and be able to make choices and decisions based on one’s own interests and preferences;
A person has to be able to set and achieve goals which lead to achievement of adult outcomes.

16. Essential Characteristics of Behaviors that are Self-Determined
Make choices and decisions as needed
Exhibit some personal and internal control over actions
Feel capable and act that way
Understand the effects of own action

17. Component Elements of SD
Choice-making
Decision Making
Problem-solving
Goal setting and attainment
Self-regulation
Self-advocacy
Self-understanding & awareness
Self-efficacy

18. Self-Determination Models
Wehmeyer's (1997) self-determination model focuses on the conceptualization of the concept of self-determination. This model is developed to explain self-determined behaviors in general. It identifies four essential characteristics that self-determined people possess and 12 component elements of self-determination.

20. Field and Hoffman’s (1994) self-determination model focuses on skills, knowledge, and values that lead to self-determination. It has five major components: know yourself, value yourself, plan, act, and experience outcomes and learn. The following figure presents the five components and their sub-components and the relationship among the five components.

22. ?? Does it lead to better student outcomes?
I know what Self-determination is. But… ??
Does it lead to better
student outcomes?

23. SD Leads to Better Transition Outcomes
Life following formal education is uncertain and overwhelming for many young people with disabilities, and support services are typically hard to find (Powers, Sowers et al., 1996). In order to be successful, it is critical that youth are self-determined so that they are able to manage the challenges they will face on a day-to-day basis.

24. Generally the opportunity to make choices, express preferences, set goals, and self-regulate learning and behavior have all been linked to more favorable educational and adult outcomes.
-- Wehmeyer (1997)

25. Two Follow-Up Studies
Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) conducted a follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. They collected data prior to their exit from high school and one year after exit. Findings showed that individuals with higher level of self-determination were more likely to have experienced a greater number of positive adult outcomes, including a higher likelihood of being employed and earning more per hour than those who were not self-determined.

26. Wehmeyer & Palmer (2003) published a follow-up study of 94 high school completers one- and three-years after exiting school. They found:
Individuals in the high SD group fared much better than individuals in the low SD group in 6 out of 8 adult living areas one-year after left school and fared better in all 8 adult living areas three-years after left school.
More individuals in the high SD group paid their phone bills and groceries and had a bank account one-year after school. At three-year after school, even more individuals in the high SD group did these things. In addition, more individuals in the high SD group paid their rent and utilities.
Individuals in the high SD group also enjoyed better overall benefits at three-years after school. They also had better specific benefits in vacation, sick leaves, and health insurance.

27. High intrinsic motivation and internal locus of control
McMillan & Reed (1994) found that some students could be classified as at-risk, but developed characteristics and coping skills that enable them to succeed. They term these students as “resilient.”
Their Common characteristics Include:
High intrinsic motivation and internal locus of control
Higher educational aspirations
Motivated by a desire to succeed, to be self-starting, and to be personally responsible for their achievements
A strong sense of self-efficacy
Clear, realistic goals and are optimistic about the future

28. Hardre and Reeve (2003) Study
Used self-determination theory and tested a motivational model to explain the conditions under which rural students formulate their intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school.
The model argues that motivational variables underlie students' intentions to drop out and that students' motivation can be either supported in the classroom by autonomy-supportive teachers or frustrated by controlling teachers.

29. Analyses of questionnaire data from 483 rural high school students showed that the provision of autonomy support within classrooms predicted students' self-determined motivation and perceived competence. These motivational resources, in turn, predicted students' intentions to persist, versus drop out, and they did so even after controlling for the effect of achievement.

30. Risk Factors for Dropout
Family Factors: Poverty, inadequate family guidance, lack of role models
School Factors: Inadequate school practices and policies (e.g., a student has more than one teacher – makes it hard for parents to connect with one adult; instruction is irrelevant)
Student Factors: repeated failure, learned helplessness, lack of future goals, inadequate choices, poor judgment, poor peer relations, lack of problem-solving skills, external locus of control, low self-esteem

31. Why Do Students with Disabilities Drop out of School?
Two studies have provided specific information on the primary reasons for dropping out of school among special education youth.
One study asked California special education administrators to identify why youth left school (Jay and Padilla, 1987). They reported the following reasons in order of influence: dislike of school, preference for a job, inability to get along with teachers, and friends who dropped out.
The National Longitudinal Transition Study showed that parents of students with emotional disabilities reported that most of their children had dropped out because of their dislike of school (32%) or because of behavior problems (27%; Wagner, 1989).

32. Activity
Discussion & Identification of At-Risk Factors for Dropout for Students with Disabilities
Which Elements of Self-Determination Can Be Used to Mediate/Reduce the Risks and How?

33. Addressing Risk Factors by Teaching Component Elements of SD
Choice-making, decision-making, and problem-solving
Goal setting and attainment
Self-Regulation
Self-advocacy
Self-understanding and awareness
Self-efficacy

34. Self-Determination and Standards-Based Reform
Component elements of self-determined behavior are found in virtual all state and local standards across multiple content areas
Students who are self-determined are more likely to be able to successfully engage with the curriculum:
Learning-to-learn or self-regulation strategies
Goal oriented, problem-solving focused
Study skills, organization skills
--Wehmeyer (2004)

35. No Content Left Behind
All students need instruction to become self-determined
Component elements in standards
Enhanced capacity to interact with and engage in the curriculum
Valued societal outcome
Need to develop and implement school-wide interventions: Not just disability-focused, not just IEP-focused
--Wehmeyer (2004)

36. Acquiring the personal characteristics which lead to self-determination is a developmental process. Children should be given opportunities to engage in activities that promote SD and should be taught SD

37. Approaches to Promoting SD
Fostering SD in daily educational activities starting from early elementary years
Infusing SD skills instruction into existing curricula
Teaching SD by implementing an SD curriculum
Practicing SD skills through participation in transitional and educational planning
School/district wide implementation

38. Fostering Self-Determination
Start early!
Early Childhood (2 -5)
Early Elementary Years (6 - 8)
Late Elementary Years (9 - 11)
Secondary Years (12 & Over)
-- Doll, Sands, Wehmeyer, and Palmer (1996)

39. Early Childhood provide opportunities to make structured choices
provide opportunities to generate choices that are both positive and negative
provide formative and constructive feedback on the consequences of choices made in the recent past
provide opportunities for planning activities that are pending
provide opportunities to self-evaluate task performance to a model
ask directive questions so that the child compare his or her performance to a model

40. Early Elementary
provide opportunities to choose from among several different strategies for a task
ask children to reconsider choices they’ve made in the recent past
encourage children to “think aloud” with you
provide opportunities to talk about how they learn
provide opportunities to systematically evaluate their work
help students set simple goals for themselves and check to see whether they are reaching them.

41. Late Elementary provide guidance in systematic analyses of decisions
use the same systematic structure to analyze past decisions now that their consequences are evident
provide opportunities to commit to personal or academic goals
provide opportunities to systematically analyze adult perspectives
provide opportunities to evaluate task performance in affectively “safe” ways

42. Secondary
provide oppy. to make decisions that have important impact on their day-to-day activities
make it easy for students to see the link between their goals and daily decisions
provide guidance in breaking students’ long-term goals into a number of short-term objectives
assist student in realistically recognizing and accepting weaknesses in key skills
assist student in requesting academic and social supports from teachers

43. Self-Determination Curricula
Next S.T.E.P.
Steps to Self-Determination
Take Charge for the Future
Choice Maker
Whose Future Is It Anyway
1-2-3 BREAK

44. NEXT S.T.E.P.
The Next S.T.E.P. (Helper et al., 1997) is a self-determination curriculum that is designed to teach adolescents with and without disabilities, ages 14 to 21.
Teach skills that they need to participate successfully in a self-directed transition planning process.
Students learn to define their hopes and dreams, engage in self-evaluation, set goals and plan activities that will help them accomplish the goals.
Consists of 19 lessons clustered into four units.

45. The Next S.T.E.P. curriculum materials include a teacher’s manual, student workbooks, and a video. The teacher’s manual contains lesson plans, masters for overhead transparencies, and guidelines for involving parents or other family members in a student’s transition planning process. The student workbooks include worksheets used in the lessons, plan sheets, and other forms that students will need to produce their transition plans. The video contains a number of vignettes that play a motivational and instructional role in some lessons.

46. Choice Maker Self-Determination Curriculum
Purpose: Designed to teach self-determination skills they need to be successful in adult life
Components: Choice and decision-making; goal setting; problem-solving; self-evaluation; self-advocacy; IEP planning; self-awareness

47. Overview: Three strands with five units
Choosing Goals: “Choosing employment goals”
“Choosing personal goals”
“Choosing education goals”
Expressing Goals: “Self-directed IEP”
Taking Action: “Take action”

48. Whose Future is it Anyway
Whose Future is it Anyway? A Student-Directed Transition Planning Process
Overview: Written for students to read and work through at their own pace; teacher’s role:
Facilitate student success
Teach information requested by student
Advocate for students

49. Purpose: Students have opportunities & supports to:
Gain self-awareness of unique strengths & support needs and identify abilities, interests, & preferences
Learn skills to take a meaningful role in IEP/transition planning process
Prepare for a more active role at planning meeting

50. The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction
Is used in classrooms for goal setting for academic and transition outcomes (employment, post-secondary training or education, living, recreation/leisure)
Can be used in variety of settings and for a variety of goal areas

51. Each phase has three components:
Three phases: Set a goal, take action, and adjust goal or plan
Each phase has three components:
Student questions – 12, written in first person voice for student focus
Teacher objectives – provide guidance for teacher on each question
Educational supports – support students to work through the goals

52. 1-2-3 BREAK by Dalun Zhang & Nancy Woodruff

53. Goal of the Project
To design, field-test, and disseminate an after-school youth empowerment program that teaches essential and practical self-determination skills to school-age youth with developmental disabilities (ages 14 to 21) to enhance their participation in planning their educational and transitional services.

54. Objectives Program design Curriculum development
Pilot-test the entire program and each of the core elements of the program
Disseminate program information to counties across the state and other parts of the nation.

55. Program Design
Review of the literature to identify key factors that influence youth with developmental disabilities’ acquisition of self-determination skills.
Target Population. The project will target school-age youth with developmental disabilities ages 14 to 21. This group has repeatedly identified as low achievers in the important adult outcome areas such as employment, postsecondary education, independent living, and community integration
Determine the core elements of the after-school youth empowerment program.

56. Curriculum Development
Based on Review of the Literature, Identified 10 topics
Developed 15 Lessons to Address the Topics
Major Features: Activity-Based, Interactive, Standard Procedures, and Theme repetition
Draft Was Reviewed by Many
Field-Testing in Oconee & Pickens

57. The 10 Topics Personal Strengths and Weaknesses
Identifying Needs and Wants
Goals
Characteristics, Setting, Planning, Accomplishing
Choice-Making
Decision-Making
Problem-solving
Educational Planning
Employment Goal Planning
Problem Solving at Work
Independent Living Goals

58. Curriculum Components
15 Directed Lessons
Objectives
Materials
Focus
Guided Practice
Independent Practice
Closure
14 Workbook Activities
Individual
Group
Pretest and Posttest

59. The 15 Lessons Kickoff to Self-Determination Who Am I – My Metaphors
Needs and Wants
What is Success? (S-T Goals)
What is Success? (L-T Goals)
Decision-Making and Choice-Making (1)
Decision-Making and Choice-Making (2)
Problem Solving
Educational Goal Planning
Educational Planning and Transition Portfolio
Goals Setting for Employment
Coping with Problems at Work
Independent Living Skills
SD Review, Reflections, and Posttest
Celebration

60. Standard Procedures
Students with disabilities need a structure to follow
The structures in this program is “1-2-3 Break”
The structures emphasize steps need to take for making choices and decision, setting goals, and attaining goals.

61. 1, 2, 3 BREAK 1 – Know yourself 2 – Value yourself 3 – Plan your life
B – Be in control
R – Realize your options
E – Evaluate your options
A – Act out the best choice
K – Know you did the best

62. Activities and Interactions
The Hall of Fame Posters
Guest Speakers
Role Playing
Videos
Digital Pictures for Self-Reflections
Independent Goal Setting
Class Discussions
Workbook Activities

63. Field-Test: Student Information
Districts
Classes
Regular High School & Career Center
LD & MD
Gender
Placement
Teacher Support

64. Major Activities Kickoff in Seneca: Coach Jones and Radio (Video)
Poster: Famous People with Disabilities
Strengths and Weaknesses – Pictures
Student Participation Level

65. What Works, What Not Keeping Activities Realistic Lecture Be Engaging
Encourage Group Involvement
Focus on Abilities, not Disabilities
Lecture
Extensive Reading
Extensive Writing

66. Issues and Considerations in Self-Determination Assessment: What to Assess?
Observable Behaviors versus Internal Processing
Typical Performance versus Highest Potential
Objective versus Subjective
Personal Expectations versus Societal Expectations
Exceptional versus Typical (Do typical people do these?)
School versus Home/Community
Home Living Routines versus Job Performance
Family Background versus Cultural Norm

67. Qualitative (In-Depth) or Quantitative (Checklist)?
Issues and Considerations in Self-Determination Assessment: How to Assess?
Qualitative (In-Depth) or Quantitative (Checklist)?
Commercially Available versus Self-Developed
Scenario-Based versus Multiple-Choice
Curriculum-Based versus Standard-Based
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced

68. Student Role in Self-Determination Assessment
Issues and Considerations in Self-Determination Assessment: Who to Involve?
Student Role in Self-Determination Assessment
Family’s role in Self-Determination Assessment
Educator’s Role in Self-Determination Assessment
Service Personnel’s Role in Self-Determination Assessment

69. So, What, Who and How?
Purpose determines focus areas for assessment
Purpose dictates participants of assessment
Purpose determines methods of data collection
Purpose dictates usage of assessment results

70. Purpose of Assessment
Promoting self-awareness
Instructional planning
Service Determination
Student progress and evaluation of interventions/services
Making accommodations in the environment

71. Examples of Available Instruments
The Arc’s Self-Determination Scale (Wheeler, 1995)
The Self-Determination Battery (Hoffman, Field, & Swallows, 1995)
The Self-Determination Profile Package: An Assessment Package (Curtis, 1996)
Choice Maker Self-Determination Assessment (Martin & Marshall, 1996)