Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress.

Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress —100 senators and 435 representatives—represent the voices of the people across America. Yet some observers worry that Congress does not represent all voices equally.

House & Senate: Differences in Representation
Bicameral System: Two Chambers Part of the Connecticut Compromise Each state has two senators Representation in the House determined by state population Predicated on different models of representation Senate: states, with long terms House: districts, with short terms This is a good time to remind students about why this system was established: the small states wanted equal representation and the large states wanted representation proportional to population. The idea of two equal chambers had never been tried before.

Senate: 100 Senators Originally selected by state legislatures Six year terms House of Representatives: 435 Members Elected by districts Two year terms 5 non-voting delegates: American Samoa, District of Columbia, Guam, U.W. Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.

House and Senate: Differences in Representation
For its first 128 years, Congress was a decidedly masculine world. In 1917, three years before the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, Jeanette Rankin (R-Mont.) (pictured back row, far right) became the first woman to serve in Congress.

Congressional districts can be relatively homogeneous Ideal for organized interests claiming to represent constituents Members tend to specialize in one committee States are far more heterogeneous Senators have to be generalists More open to a wider array of interests You haven’t yet lectured about committees, but if this point isn’t clear, it may help to point out that 100 senators need to do the same amount of work as 435 representatives.

How representatives “represent”: Sociological Representation: Representative shares characteristics, background and interests with constituents Agency Representation: Representative has incentives to act in the constituents’ interests Students should immediately realize this was the debate between the anti-federalists and the federalists. The anti-federalists wanted elected officials who shared the same background and financial interests as their constituents. The federalists argued that frequent elections would keep the system representative.

Sociological Representation FIGURE 12.1 Women, African Americans, and Latinos in the U.S. Congress, 1971–2010 Congress has become much more socially diverse since the 1970s. After a gradual increase from 1971 to 1990, the number of women and African American members grew quickly during the first half of the 1990s. How does the pattern of growth for Latino representatives compare with that of women and African Americans? SOURCES: Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, eds., Vital Statistics on American Politics 2003–2004 (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2003), 207, Table 5–2; and Mildred Amer and Jennifer E. Manning, Membership of the 11th Congress: A Profile, Congressional Research Service , December 31, 2008, assets.opencrs.com (accessed 1/31/10). A good discussion question is whether, if citizens take these characteristics seriously, we should expect representatives with “minority” characteristics to be present in the legislature in proportion to the population at large? What if there were no majority-minority districts?

WHO ARE THE MEMBERS OF CONGRESS?
Chapter 12 WHO ARE THE MEMBERS OF CONGRESS?

Who are the Members of 111th Congress2009?
Gender U.S. Pop. 51% 49% House 15% 85% Senate 17% 83% Female Male Although the number of women, African Americans, and Latinos in Congress has increased in recent decades, Congress is still much less diverse than the American population. Members of Congress are predominantly male, white, Protestant Christian, and most commonly from a professional and educational background as lawyers. These data compare the 111th Congress, which took office in 2009, with the U.S. population as a whole. Key U.S. Population Senate SOURCES: Mildred L. Amer, “Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile,” CRS Report R40086, February 4, U.S. Census Bureau, (accessed 3/5/10). House of Representatives

Who are the Members of 111th Congress?
Race U.S. Pop. 65% 13% 16% 5% 1% House 82% 9% 6% 2% 0.2% Senate 96% 1% 2% 0% White Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific Native American Although the number of women, African Americans, and Latinos in Congress has increased in recent decades, Congress is still much less diverse than the American population. Members of Congress are predominantly male, white, Protestant Christian, and most commonly from a professional and educational background as lawyers. These data compare the 111th Congress, which took office in 2009, with the U.S. population as a whole. Key U.S. Population Senate SOURCES: Mildred L. Amer, “Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile,” CRS Report R40086, February 4, U.S. Census Bureau, (accessed 3/5/10). House of Representatives

Religion U.S. Pop. 51% 24% 3% 2% 17% House 55% 31% 4% 7% 2% 1% Senate 54% 26% 6% 13% 0% Protestant Catholic Other Christian Jewish Other Faiths Unaffiliated Although the number of women, African Americans, and Latinos in Congress has increased in recent decades, Congress is still much less diverse than the American population. Members of Congress are predominantly male, white, Protestant Christian, and most commonly from a professional and educational background as lawyers. These data compare the 111th Congress, which took office in 2009, with the U.S. population as a whole. Key U.S. Population Senate SOURCES: Mildred L. Amer, “Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile,” CRS Report R40086, February 4, U.S. Census Bureau, (accessed 3/5/10). House of Representatives

Education U.S. Pop. 13.5% 57% 19% 1.5% 9% House — 8% 29% 39% 25% Senate — 1% 20% 57% 22% < High school High school grad. Bachelor’s degree Professional/ Law degree Other advanced Although the number of women, African Americans, and Latinos in Congress has increased in recent decades, Congress is still much less diverse than the American population. Members of Congress are predominantly male, white, Protestant Christian, and most commonly from a professional and educational background as lawyers. These data compare the 111th Congress, which took office in 2009, with the U.S. population as a whole. Key U.S. Population Senate SOURCES: Mildred L. Amer, “Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile,” CRS Report R40086, February 4, U.S. Census Bureau, (accessed 3/5/10). House of Representatives

Average Age U.S. Pop House Although the number of women, African Americans, and Latinos in Congress has increased in recent decades, Congress is still much less diverse than the American population. Members of Congress are predominantly male, white, Protestant Christian, and most commonly from a professional and educational background as lawyers. These data compare the 111th Congress, which took office in 2009, with the U.S. population as a whole. Questions for Classroom Discussion: Does it matter if the backgrounds of members of Congress reflect the population as a whole? Can members still represent their constituents effectively if they do not come from the same backgrounds? Visit and to identify your representatives in Congress and visit their Web pages. How similar are their backgrounds to yours? How closely do their policy positions, as expressed on their web pages, match your own? Senate SOURCES: Mildred L. Amer, “Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile,” CRS Report R40086, February 4, U.S. Census Bureau, (accessed 3/5/10).

Representatives as Agents: Legislators learn about the interests of constituents Parties almost never ask a member of Congress to vote against constituent interests This slide ties into interest groups, as discussed in the previous chapter. Interest groups are expected to reach out to members of Congress, and those members are expected to actively reach out to constituents. However, this is not easy when a Representative can have over 600,000 constituents and a Senator can have millions.

The Electoral Connection
Who gets elected? Who decides to run Incumbency advantage Districting and gerrymandering issues

Who runs? Candidates must “self select” to run, but some are encouraged by parties more than others A good candidate needs: Good name recognition Success in prior elected offices Ability to raise funds Willingness to campaign Ability to reach out to voters You may wish to note that women tend to wait until their children are older before running for office, and this tends to delay when then enter the candidacy “pipeline” and hence limits their ability to move up in office, by having less time to do so. See, Mack Mariani “A Gendered Pipeline? The Advancement of State Legislators to Congress in Five States.” Politics and Gender, Vol. 4, No. 2 (June):

Incumbency Advantage Members of Congress have an array of tools to keep them in office Constituency services Franking privilege Name recognition and title Pork barrel spending for district As David R. Mayhew has written in Congress: The Electoral Connection, if members of Congress tried to devise a system that would allow them to maximize their chances of re-election, the system would not look much different than it does today.

The Power of Incumbency
FIGURE 12.2 The Power of Incumbency Members of Congress who run for re-election have a very good chance of winning. Senators have at times found it difficult to use the power of incumbency to protect their seats, as the sharp decline in Senate incumbency rates between 1974 and 1980 indicates. Has the incumbency advantage generally been greater in the House or in the Senate? SOURCES: Norman J. Ornstein et al., eds., Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999–2000 (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2000), 57–58; and authors’ update. * Estimate

Redistricting The vast majority of incumbents in safe seats come from districts where the majority of voters are from the same party as they are The critical election in these districts is the primary Again, a point to strike home is that there are a significant number of congressional seats where the incumbent is not even challenged by the other party, because the district has been drawn in such a manner that it is very unlikely that the out party would will. In districts like these where the seat is contested, the opponent is either hoping for some unforeseen scandal or accident to happen, is hoping to run well and draw attention for another race down the line, or has unrealistic expectations.

Results of Congressional Reapportionment, 2000 [Tx +4 in 2010]
FIGURE 12.4 Results of Congressional Reapportionment, 2000 States in the West and parts of the South were the big winners in the reapportionment of House seats following the 2000 census. The old manufacturing states in the Midwest and Mid-Atlantic regions were the biggest losers. Which states have the greatest number of House seats?

The Electoral Connection, 1910 vs 2000
Apportionment and Districting FIGURE 12.3 Apportionment of House Seats by Region, 1910 and 2000 During the twentieth century, population movements greatly increased the number of congressional seats in the West and the South. Which areas have lost the most congressional representation over time? SOURCE: Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann, and Michael J. Malbin, eds., Vital Statistics on Congress, 2001–2002 (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2002), 59. Every ten years the 435 Congressional seats are allocated among the states after the census. This is one reason why many states work so hard to get residents to fill out census forms, since a lower count may lead to the loss of a congressional seat.

Direct Patronage Pork barrel spending Earmarks Patronage Some local and state elected officials have jobs to offer to constituents Constituent services Private bills This topic will be discussed later, but a point to make is that key committee spots are typically reserved for more senior members, who use those positions to bring spending to their districts. This is also one reason why it is so hard for Congress to cut spending: Members will work to prevent cuts to their districts.

How Members of Congress Represent Their Districts
FIGURE 12.5 How Members of Congress Represent Their Districts

The Organization of Congress
Building blocks of Congress Parties Committees Staff Caucuses Parliamentary rules

Speaker of the House is the leader of majority party Both parties also elect a majority and minority leader and whip Parties determine which of their members sit on various committees Actually, both parties have numerous deputy whips who often specialize in various policy areas, but each party has one person with the title of whip.

The Vice President officially chairs the Senate, but only takes the gavel at ceremonial events and in the case of a tie vote The President Pro Tempore usually chairs the Senate, but often hands off to another member for routine business The textbook mentions this, but you may want to stress at this point that party leaders are far more powerful in the House than the in Senate. In the latter, more business is conducted through consensus, with party leaders having less leverage over members than in the House.

Majority Party Structure in the House of Representatives
FIGURE 12.6 Majority Party Structure in the House of Representatives *Includes Speaker, majority leader, chief and deputy whips, caucus chair, chairs of five major committees, members elected by regional caucuses, members elected by recently elected representatives, and at-large members appointed by the Speaker.

Majority Party Structure in the Senate
FIGURE 12.7 Majority Party Structure in the Senate

Committee System Standing committees Select committees Joint committees Conference committees

Standing committees are permanent and are where the majority of legislation is written A point to make is that members try to get on committees that have jurisdiction over key elements of their districts. Members representing Connecticut and New York may want to get on Financial Services, for example, while a member from Kansas may want to obtain a seat on Agriculture.

Select Committees Formed temporarily to focus on a specific issue Cannot present bills to the chamber Bring attention to a specific subject The issues for which Select committees are formed are often those that span many committees or that are so rare or novel that the standing committees cannot easily address them.

Joint Committees Formed from members of both Chambers Gather information Cover issues internal to Congress

Conference Committees For a bill to become a law, the same wording of the bill must be passed by both chambers Conference committees are formed to write the final wording when both chambers pass similar bills that need to be reconciled

The number of seats the minority party has on a committee is roughly proportionate to the seats it has in the House, but at an unfavorable rate. Seniority determines committee assignments Chairs can be removed by the party caucus Chairs are term-limited The Republican changes in 1995 were truly revolutionary. Quite a number of senior members were skipped over for chair assignments because their political leanings were not close enough to those of the new leadership.

Congressional Staffers Members of Congress need staff who are experts in specific fields, and also staff to help constituents Over 11,500 staff in DC and district offices Another 2,000 staff for committees Each Representative is allocated a staffing budget, which they can spend as they wish. Senators are allocated budgets according to the population of their state. Staffing is typically allocated on a lifecycle pattern, in which newer members typically focus more heavily on constituent services, with a large percentage of their staff back working in their districts. As they rise in seniority and feel safer in their seats, they typically pull more staff into DC to focus on policy work.

Congressional Research Service Research arm of Congress Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Assesses costs of programs and income from tax plans General Accounting Office Audits federal agencies and programs The key point about these programs is that they are nonpartisan and their work is generally highly regarded. The cost estimations from the CBO can make or break a bill, for example.

Congressional Caucuses Groups of Senators or Representatives who share common goals or interests Some have large budgets and significant staffs, and are capable of pressuring Congress and the Executive branch The Congressional Black Caucus is officially non-discriminatory, but only admits black members of Congress. In the 111th Congress there was one Senator and 41 House members in the CBC. It receives some funding—as many other caucuses do—from the federal government, and has an office in the Capitol.

How a Bill Becomes a Law FIGURE 12.8 How a Bill Becomes a Law
*Points at which a bill can be amended. †Points at which a bill can die. ‡ If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill within ten days, it automatically becomes law.

How a Bill Becomes a Law A bill is a proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of Congress and submitted to the Clerk of the House or Senate The bill is given a number and assigned to a committee, which typically refers it to a subcommittee Bills taken seriously are given a hearing Approximately 95 percent of bills do not advance past the committee level. The idea that many bills are known in advance to be non-starters may strike the students as odd. They may not be familiar with “symbolic politics,” where the goal is to make a statement rather than achieve a policy goal.

How a Bill Becomes a Law The subcommittee and/or full committee writes the language of the bill The full committee sends the bill to the floor Bill must pass through the Rules Committee in the House first Rules committee gives bill an open or closed rule Senate requires a consent agreement The House also has a Germaness rule that says that any amendment to a bill must pertain to that bill, so members cannot attach military spending to a farm bill, for example. The Senate does not have this rule.

How a Bill Becomes a Law The House rule determines how much time is allocated for floor debate; powerful com’tee! The debate time is divided equally between those for and against the bill The Senate allows for unlimited discussion, requiring 60 votes to end a filibuster via cloture

How a Bill Becomes a Law Once a bill clears in one chamber, it is sent to the other where the process starts over If both chambers pass the same wording, the bill is sent to the president If not, both chambers create a conference committee

How a Bill Becomes a Law The President is given ten days and 4 options
Veto bill -- Vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in each chamber Pocket veto: If there are less than tens days left in the Congressional calendar and the president does not sign the bill into law, it dies and must begin again from scratch in the next session Sign bill into law! Do nothing. After 10 days, bill automatically becomes law The number of vetoes by a president varies quite dramatically. It largely depends on whether Congress is controlled by the same party as the President.

How Congress Decides Members of Congress often spend a great deal of time in their electoral districts meeting with constituents. Representative Elijah E. Cummings of Maryland is shown here greeting constituents at an event in Baltimore.

How Congress Decides There are a number of influences on members of Congress Constituents Legislators take constituents seriously if they believe it will affect their support at the next election

How Congress Decides Interest Groups
Can supply legislators with information about pending bills Can make donations Do they represent the interests of constituents?

Party Discipline As Speaker of the House, Nancy Pelosi ensured that freshman Democrats—such as Steve Driehaus of Ohio, pictured here—had opportunities to speak on the floor. Despite this increased visibility, many Democratic freshmen, including Driehaus, lost their bids for re-election in 2010.

How Congress Decides Party Discipline
Congress has become bitterly partisan since the 1990s FIGURE 12.9 Party Unity Votes by Chamber Party unity votes are roll-call votes in which a majority of one party lines up against a majority of the other party. Party unity votes increase when the parties are polarized and when the party leadership can enforce discipline. Why did the percentage of party unity votes decline in the 1970s? Why has it risen in recent years? SOURCE: Richard, Rubin “Party Unity: An Ever Thicker Dividing Line,” CQ Weekly Online (January 11, 2010), 122–31, library.cqpress.com (accessed 2/5/10). Students may not realize that not all votes are partisan in nature. There are many ceremonial votes commending citizens and groups (that are usually unanimous), and spending bills tend to generate majorities from both parties, because they often benefit everyone. However, when it comes to important legislation, we have seen increases in partisanship over the middle of the twentieth century.

How Congress Decides Party leaders have some tools at their disposal:
Leadership PACs Committee assignments Access to the floor The whip system Logrolling Presidency There are two other points you might want to discuss. The first is that members want to rise in their chamber, and they do so not only through seniority but also by supporting powerful members of their party who can do them favors in return. This means that leads junior members are often influenced by more senior members. On other hand, there are times when members really do believe in certain policy goals, and are not be willing to sacrifice them. There are times when party leaders simply have to accept this.

Oversight In 2006, the Senate Judiciary Committee responded to concerns about President Bush’s authorization of secret domestic surveillance by holding hearings on the program. Former attorney general Alberto Gonzales was called to testify and explain the administration’s actions. In 2006, the Senate Judiciary Committee responded to concerns about President Bush’s authorization of secret domestic surveillance by holding hearings on the program. Former attorney general Alberto Gonzales was called to testify and explain the administration’s actions.

Beyond Legislation Oversight
Congress is expected to oversee the activities of the Executive Branch in order to ensure funding is spent and laws are enforced properly It is also the case, sadly, that just as Congress often abuses its oversight powers for partisan purposes, many witnesses simply refuse to cooperate, either by pleading they have forgotten or simply evading the questions.

Beyond Legislation Advice and Consent
The Senate must confirm top-level executive appointments, ambassadors and federal judges Must also approve all treaties You may also want to note that if the Senate is not in session, the president can appoint people into positions as “recess appointments” who can hold office until the end of the next session. This is usually done to avoid the need for Senate approval, and is not usually taken kindly.

Impeachment The Senate possesses the power to impeach federal officials. In American history, sixteen federal officials have been impeached, including two presidents, Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton. During Clinton’s trial in the House, Bill McCollum (R-Fla.), argued that lying under oath was sufficient grounds for removing Clinton from office.

Beyond Legislation Impeachment
If high officials are thought to have committed “Treason, Bribery or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors” they can be impeached The House acts as a grand jury and makes the formal charge or indictment (majority vote required) The Senate conducts the actual trial and with 2/3 vote can convict and remove a President from office Chief Justice of Supreme Court presides over Presidential impeachment trial If the Senate conducts a trial, the Chief Justice conducts it.

Debate, After the 2010 Gulf oil spill, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee held hearings on the disaster. Executives from BP America, Transocean Limited, and Halliburton were called to testify on their companies’ roles in the spill. After the 2010 Gulf oil spill, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee held hearings on the disaster. Executives from BP America, Transocean Limited, and Halliburton were called to testify on their companies’ roles in the spill.

The Legislator’s Dilemma
Delegate or Trustee? What should a legislator do when she disagrees with her constituents about an important issue? She may know more about the issue than her constituents, and if they knew as much, they may also think differently The classic articulation of the trustee model is Edmund Burke’s “Speech to the Electors of Bristol.” He was not reelected.

Public Opinion Poll Do you approve or disapprove of the way Congress is handling its job? Strongly approve Approve Disapprove Strongly disapprove 60

Public Opinion Poll Do you approve or disapprove of the way your member of Congress is handling his or her job? Strongly approve Approve Disapprove Strongly disapprove 61

Public Opinion Poll Do you believe we should have term limits for Members of Congress? Yes No 62

Public Opinion Poll Do you believe state legislatures should consider the racial makeup of a district when redistricting? Yes No 63

Public Opinion Poll Do you think it is important that the demographics of Congress represent the social, racial and economic demographics of the country? Yes No 64

Public Opinion Poll When members of Congress cast a vote, which of the following factors should typically most influence their decision? The interests of the country as a whole The interests of their district or state 65

Public Opinion Poll Which of the following do you believe should be the most influential factor in the voting decisions of members of congress? The preferences of their constituents The preferences of the President The preferences of the Members’ Party Leadership The members’ own ideology 66

wwnorton.com/we-the-people
Chapter 12: Congress Quizzes Flashcards Outlines Exercises wwnorton.com/we-the-people 67

Following this slide, you will find additional images, figures, and tables from the textbook.

Differences between the House and the Senate
TABLE Differences between the House and the Senate

The Social Composition of the U.S. Congress
The increase in the number of African Americans in Congress in the last forty years is shown by the membership of the Congressional Black Caucus, which had forty-two members in Caucus members are shown here at a press conference about the government’s response to Hurricane Katrina, which was especially devastating to the African American community in the Gulf states.

Party Leadership in the Senate
In 2006, Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) became the first woman Speaker of the House of Representatives. Minority Leader John Boehner (R-OH), who handed her the gavel that year, took over as Speaker in 2011 after Republicans won a majority in the House in the 2010 elections.

The Staff System: Staffers and Agencies
Members of Congress rely heavily on their personal staffs and on committee staffs, who often play an important role in the legislative process. Here, Senator Orrin Hatch (right) talks with two aides during a Judiciary Committee meeting.

Party Discipline Although party discipline in Congress has declined in the past century, recent years have seen a new increase in party unity. In 2008, House and Senate Republicans appeared together to show that they were united in their support of a proposal for property tax cuts.

Celebrities, Capitol Hill, and the 2009 Health Care Debate

What Is Congress’s Role in Foreign Policy?

Get Your Representatives in Congress Working for You

Incumbency In 2010, Senator Arlen Specter (pictured below) lost the Pennsylvania Democratic primary to a challenger, ending Specter’s thirty-year career in the Senate. It is typically difficult for challengers to defeat incumbents who have held office for a long time, but as a former Republican who joined the Democrats only the year before, Specter was vulnerable to rising anti-incumbent sentiment.

Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Congress In addition to its lawmaking powers, Congress plays a critical role in American democracy as a representative institution. The members of Congress."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback