1. ACC00106- Contemporary Issues in Accounting
Lecture 2 Topic 2- Measurement in Accounting
Lynn Barkess

2. TOPIC 2 – Measurement in Accounting
Suggested Study Time
Study learning materials 4 hours
Read supplied readings 8 hours
Undertake activities and review activities
12 hours
TOTAL hours
Lynn Barkess

3. Topic 2 – Measurement in Accounting- Lecture Outline
What is Measurement?
Measurement of Assets definition, recognition criteria
Measurement of Income definition and recognition criteria
Normative theories of asset measurement
Concepts of Capital IASB Framework, CPPA, CCA, CoCoA
Creative Accounting inappropriate revenue recognition off balance sheet financing.
Lynn Barkess

4. Measurement What is measurement?
“the process of determining the monetary amounts at which the elements of the financial statements are to be recognised and carried in the balance sheet and income statement” (IASB Conceptual Framework para )
Lynn Barkess

5. Measurement of Assets-
Definition of an asset:
‘… a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity’ (IASB Framework, para. 49(a))
Recognition criteria:
An asset shall be recognised when:
it is probable that any future economic benefit associated with the item will flow to the entity, and
the item has a cost or value that can be measured with reliability (IASB Framework, para. 83)

6. Measurement of Assets
Value of asset – present value of its service potentials - ability to be exchanged for cash - ability to be exchanged for other goods and services - ability to settle liabilities
- based on the future economic benefit embedded in the item.
Non essential characteristics
Exchangeability – thus goodwill can be recognised as an asset
Lynn Barkess

7. Existing asset valuation rules
AASB102 Inventory: Lower of cost and net realisable value AASB 139 Financial Instruments & AASB 140 Investment Property: fair value “mark to market” AASB116 P,P&E :Historical cost or revaluation to fair value; Depreciate; Test for impairment. AASB138 Intangible assets: Cost; revalue only if active market exists AASB3 Business combinations: Goodwill – refer to ACC00145 studies AACSB 136 Impairment test: “Recoverable amount”

8. Normative Accounting Theories
This topic introduces the following normative theories of accounting.
IASB Conceptual Framework
Current Purchasing Power Accounting (CPPA)
Current Cost Accounting (CCA)
Continuous Contemporary Accounting (CoCoA)
You are not required to prepare sets of accounts using CPPA, CCA or CoCoA
You are required to know:
How assets and income are measured using each theoretical approach, and
The justifications that underpin each theory
Lynn Barkess

9. Normative Accounting Theories IASB- Conceptual Framework
Capital Maintenance – Financial Capital –This concept is adopted by most entities when preparing their financial statements. Under a financial concept of capital, such as invested money or invested purchasing power, capital is synonymous with the net assets or equity of the entity. Physical Capital –operating capability, capital is regarded as the productive capacity of the entity based on, for example, units of output per day.
Lynn Barkess

10. Normative Accounting Theories IASB- Conceptual Framework
Concepts of capital maintenance and the determination of profit.
only inflows of assets in excess of amounts needed to maintain capital may be regarded as profit (IASB 4.60)
Financial capital maintenance - profit is earned only if the financial (or money) amount of the net assets at the end of the period exceeds the financial (or money) amount of net assets at the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period.
Financial capital maintenance can be measured
in either nominal monetary units or units of constant purchasing power (IASB 4.59 (a)).
Lynn Barkess

11. Normative Accounting Theories IASB- Conceptual Framework
Concepts of capital maintenance and the determination of profit (cont.)
Physical capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if the physical productive capacity (or operating capability) of the entity (or the resources or funds needed to achieve that capacity) at the end of the period exceeds the physical productive capacity at the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period (IASB 4.59 (a)).
Lynn Barkess

12. Normative Accounting Theories- CPPA
Current Purchasing Power (CPPA)
Information assumed to be required by users an entity’s ability to maintain purchasing power
Concept of capital maintenance Physical although not explicitly stated
Lynn Barkess

13. Normative Accounting Theories- CPPA
Measurement
Purchasing power losses arise only as a result of holding net monetary assets (Deegan , p. 174)
Monetary assets- NB: most liabilities would be considered to be monetary assets Net monetary assets = monetary assets less monetary liabilities.
Holding gains/losses on net monetary assets are recognised in the income statement
Non-monetary assets -Historical cost of goods restated to current purchasing power- no gain or loss is recognised.
Lynn Barkess

14. Normative Accounting Theories- CPPA
Issues
Which price index to use, CPI? Does this represent the changes in the prices relating to specific commodities? See example on page 172
Information generated by CPPA statements might be confusing?
What do you think?
Lynn Barkess

15. Normative Accounting Theories- CCA
Current Cost Accounting (CCA)
HC and CPPA were rejected and CCA adoptees included Paton (1922) and Edwards and Bell (1961)
CCA differentiates between profits/losses from trading and gains/loses that result from holding an asset.
Information assumed to be required by users an entity’s ability to maintain operating capacity
Lynn Barkess

16. Normative Accounting Theories- CCA
Holding gains may be realised or unrealised. Depending on the concept of capital maintenance adopted.
May be either physical or financial
Physical –holding gains/losses can be treated as a capital adjustment- recognised as a reserve (equity)
Edwards and Bell- operating income = realised revenues less the replacement cost of stock. This is equal to the amount that can be distributed while maintaining operating capacity. (See Deegan p. 183 for an example).
Neither realised or unrealised holding gains are available for distribution.
Lynn Barkess

17. Normative Accounting Theories- CCA
Holding gains may be realised or unrealised. Depending on the concept of capital maintenance adopted.
May be either physical or financial
Financial – holding gains and losses can be treated as income.
Measurement Non-monetary assets – are recorded at replacement cost.
Expressions with the same meaning include entry price, current cost deprival value. Depreciation based on replacement cost.
Lynn Barkess

18. Normative Accounting Theories- CCA
Issues:
Which replacement cost?
How to determine replacement cost?
May not plan on replacing asset. Then replacement cost meaningless.
Replacement cost does not reflect selling price if firm wishes to dispose of asset.
Why separate holding gains and losses from other income . May argue that judicious purchases of assets in advance of price increases is another indication of efficiency of management.
Allows comparison of operations between firm irrespective of date assets were purchased.
Lynn Barkess

19. Normative Accounting Theories- CoCoA
Continuously Contemporary Accounting (CoCoA)
Chambers (1955, 1966)
Information assumed to be required by users an entity’s adaptive ability
Profit is directly related to changes in the adaptive capital based on total exit value of the entities’ assets.
Profit is calculated as the amount that can be distributed while maintaining the adaptive capital.
Lynn Barkess

20. Normative Accounting Theories- CoCoA
Concept of capital maintenance – Financial
No distinction drawn between realised and unrealised gains/losses
Measurement Non-monetary assets –market value, exit price, fair market value, selling price, “Value in exchange”. No depreciation
Profit- realised and unrealised holding gains/losses are based on changes in the exit price of non-monetary assets and are recognised in income.
Lynn Barkess

21. Normative Accounting Theories- CoCoA
Issues-
Exit values allow additivity-
How relevant are exit prices?
Would the asset be replaced ?
Is there a market for the asset? BHP blast furnace.
How does the assumption of a going concern fit with concept of exit prices?
Underlying separability assumption. No value for goodwill.
Lynn Barkess

22. Creative Accounting
Brought about by loopholes in accounting standards and general acceptance in the business community
The use of form over substance
Methods of creative accounting
Inappropriate revenue recognition
For example Sunbeam in Enron DVD
Off balance sheet financing
Special Purpose entities
Leasing
Operating leases
Finance leases
Lynn Barkess

23. Creative Accounting Measures of Income
Definition of Revenue - AASB118.7
Is the gross inflow of economic benefit during the period arising in the course of ordinary activities of an entity when those inflows result in increases in equity, other than increases relating to contributions from equity participants
Lynn Barkess

24. Creative Accounting Revenue recognition
IAS 18 -provides guidance for recognising revenue on the
Sale of Goods
Revenue arising from the sale of goods should be recognised when all of the following criteria have been satisfied: [IAS 18.14]
A) the seller has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership
B) the seller retains neither continuing managerial involvement to the degree usually associated with ownership nor effective control over the goods sold
C) the amount of revenue can be measured reliably
D) it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the seller, and
E) the costs incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured reliably
Lynn Barkess

25. Creative Accounting Revenue recognition (cont) See Activity 2.12
Oscar sells to Bunny an item of machinery.
Sales contract includes a clause (put option) that gives Bunny (buyer) the right to require Oscar (seller) to buy back the machine for a specified amount on a specified date.
Seems that the risks and rewards of ownership have not been transferred according to IAS 18.
Lynn Barkess

26. Creative Accounting Off- Balance sheet financing
Used by companies to keep debt of the balance sheet
Most common is the operating lease
Allowed under (AASB 117, IAS 17)
FASB and IASB (ED/2010/09)
Special Purpose Entities (SPE’s)
a legal entity (usually a limited company or a limited partnership)
typically used by companies to isolate the firm from financial risk. They are also commonly used to hide debt (inflating profits), hide ownership, and obscure relationships between different entities which are in fact related to each other (see Enron). (Wikipedia)
IFRS 10, 11,12
Lynn Barkess

27. Summary- Topic 2 Measurement
Normative theories of Accounting
Concepts of Capital maintenance
Measures of Income
Valuation of Assets
Creative Accounting
Next- Topic 3 Regulation of Accounting
Lynn Barkess