1. Social Stratification and Political Organization
Chapters 10-12
Social Stratification and
Political Organization

2. Social Control Exists to ensure a certain degree of social conformity
Some people may resist conformity
Norms
Laws

3. Most non-state societies have a comparatively high degree of personal security…why?
Small size of the bands and villages
The central importance of domestic groups and kinship in their social organization
The absence of marked inequalities in access to technology and resources

4. Descent Groups and Social Organization Beyond Kin
Clans and other complex descent groups expand the basic family relationships of kin groups to provide a wider set of social structures welded together by obligations
Sources of conflict between these larger groups are numerous
Practices and institutions to mitigate these conflicts become necessary

5. Social Control in Small-scale Societies
In foraging societies, formal laws are rare
Punishment is often through naming and shaming
Punishment is legitimized through belief in supernatural forces
Capital punishment is rare

6. Social Control in States
Increased specialization of tasks relating to law and order
Process is more formal and based on law
Use of capital punishment

7. Political Anthropology
Who has it; who doesn’t
Governments
Political Anthropologists address the area of human behavior and thought related to power
Morality and law
Degrees of power
Social conflict and social control
Bases of power
Abuses of power
Political and religious power

8. Social Inequality and the Law
Critical legal anthropologists examine the role of law in maintaining power relationships through discrimination against indigenous people, women and minorities.

9. Why Kin Groups Aren’t The Answer to All Our Problems
Optimal Size of Kin Groups is small, about 200 people
Kinship ethics don’t always levy adequate sanctions (there are social reasons against it)
Long-term and immediate problems in relationships between kin groups are difficult to solve: Intermarriage is the only really permanent “glue”

10. Social Conflict Interpersonal conflict Banditry Feuding
Ethnic conflict
Revolution
Warfare
Nonviolent conflict

11. Interpersonal Conflict
Covers verbal arguments to murder
Between neighbors over resources or territory, e.g. Gwembe Valley
Between neighbors over dogs, e.g. middle-class Americans

12. Feuding The most universal form of inter-group aggression
Based on revenge
Some cultures experience more feuding because of economic change

13. FIERCE MALE BABIES FAVORED
SHORTAGE OF
FEMALES
RAID TO CAPTURE
WOMEN
FIERCE MALE BABIES FAVORED
FEMALE
INFANTICIDE
POLYGYNY
The Waiteri
Complex
Yanomami

14. Nonviolent Conflict Gandhi Weapons of the weak Non-violent resistance
Public fasting
Strikes
Celibacy
Weapons of the weak
Foot dragging, desertion, false compliance, humor

15. Mobilizing Public Opinion
Within Kin-Based systems disputes are settled on the basis of who has the most kin support (public opinion)
The general principle of dispute settlement, and leadership, is mobilization of public opinion
How far claims can be pressed depends on an individual’s willingness to suffer social penalties and his/her social backing
Example: Inuit Song Contests

16. Social Control of Behavior
Ways societies deal with abnormal behavior and conflict:
Gossip and ridicule
Fear of witchcraft accusations
Avoidance
Supernatural sanctions

17. Law Law is found in every society.
In complex societies, functions of law belong to legal institutions, such as courts.
Law addresses conflicts that would otherwise disrupt community life.

18. Aboriginal Youth and Justice
More likely to receive the most severe outcomes from criminal justice decision-makers than white youth
More likely to be classified as “undependable”
More likely to appear in court rather than Children’s Aid Panels
- Gale 1990

19. Politics and the Social Contract
Social Contract - a public contract where people agree to band together for some purpose - often highly structured in the realm of what we call "politics“
Politics - the spatial aspect of social force
Institutions control the use of force within a territorial framework (chiefdom or state)

20. Politics
The power to bring about results through authority or influence
through possession of forceful means
A human universal?
No, politics only emerged with increase in private property
Yes, there is no boundary between how kinship and political organizations organize power

21. In Political Analysis You Must Understand:
the territorial extent and organization of the society
how space and resources are divided
the social system through which force is allocated to and by different individuals playing different roles
how that system is viewed by those living in it
the institutional control of force by warfare: the maintenance of territory from outsiders
the institutional control of force by law enforcement: maintenance of territory from insiders

22. Egalitarian Societies
No individual or group has more access to resources, power, or prestige than any other.
No fixed number of social positions for which individuals must compete.
Associated with bands and tribes.

23. Shamans and Public Opinion
Shamans: Part-time religious, healing, or magic specialists
Shamans may attribute forces to enemies, both within and without
Shamans may prescribe social solutions in the guise of magic
Shamans may organize the group around perceptions and supernatural commands.

24. Headmanship
Headmen are individuals whose opinion carries more weight than others. They lead by example
A good headman can judge the prevailing opinions and gauge his statements to them
Motivation by example is the chief tool of the headman

25. The Leopard Skin Chief
The Leopard Skin Chiefs are an institution among the Nuer (Sudan).
Mediate the disputes arising out of homicide
Can ritually cleanse
the murderer
Negotiates
compensation
Curses those
who would break
the settlement

26. Non-kin Associations: Sodalities
Sodality: A non-kin group or association within a society organized around kinship groups
Age Grade Associations
Provides convenient way to teach youth
Allocates civic responsibilities
Single Sex Associations (often combined with other factors, e.g. age)
Agreement or Voluntary Groups
Vary widely in form
Organized for almost any purpose imaginable
Slight differences in the structures of parallel organizations

27. Rank Society
Institutionalized differences in prestige but no restrictions on access to basic resources.
Individuals obtain what they need to survive through their kinship group.
Associated with horticulture or pastoral societies with a surplus of food.
Associated with chiefdoms.

28. Stratified Society Formal, permanent, social and economic inequality.
Some people are denied access to basic resources.
Characterized by differences in standard of living, security, prestige and political power.

29. Stratified Society Economically organized by market systems (usually).
Based on intensive cultivation (agriculture) and industrialism.
Often associated with a form of political organization called the state.

30. Social Stratification
Societies place people in categories. Social groups relate differently to each other depending on their status.
Achieved Status
Ascribed Status
Class
Race
Ethnicity
Caste

31. Dimensions of Stratification
Power—control resources in one’s own interest.
Wealth—accumulation of material resources or access to the means of producing these resources.
Prestige—social honor or respect.

32. Ascribed Vs. Achieved Status
Ascribed Status Social position into which a person is born. (sex, race, kinship group)
Achieved Status Social position that a person chooses or achieves. (professor, criminal, artist)

33. Social Class in the United States
Status depends on occupation, education, and lifestyle.
“The American Dream,” is based on the democratic principle of equality and opportunity for all.
Social class in the United States correlates with attitudinal, behavioral, and lifestyle differences.

34. Caste System System of stratification based on birth.
Movement from one caste to another is not possible.
Castes are hereditary, endogamous, ranked in relation to one another and usually associated with a traditional occupation.

35. Hindu Caste System Four caste categories
Brahmins - priests and scholars
Kshatriyas - ruling and warrior caste
Vaisyas - the merchants
Shudras - menial workers and artisans
Harijans – “untouchables”

36. U.S. Racial Stratification Systems
Race is constructed on the basis of skin color and presumed ancestry.
Divides people into “blacks” and “whites” ignoring the reality of the skin color spectrum.
By the 20th century, the system of race in the American south was very similar to the caste system in India.

37. Race Stratification in the U.S. and Brazil
Two largest multiracial societies in the Americas.
In both societies the legacy of slavery continues in the form of racial inequality.
Brazil: 45% of nonwhite families and 25% of white families live below the poverty line.
U.S.: 30% of nonwhite families and 8% of white families live below the poverty line.

38. Types of Social Groups Friendship Clubs and fraternities
Counterculture groups
Work groups
Cooperatives
Activist groups

39. Friendship amongst the urban poor
A cultural universal
Can be gender and race segregated
Institutional relationships (e.g. prison)
Friendship
Usually between social equals
Sometimes based on shared story-telling

40. Clubs and Fraternities
Define membership on shared identity
Can serve economic and political roles
Men’s clubs featuring male-male bonding activities are common
often involve objectification and mistreatment of women
some US college fraternities

41. Counterculture Groups
Feature in industrialized societies
Members desire to be identified with a special group
youth gangs
initialization rituals
a leader
special clothing
body modification groups

42. Work Groups Organized to perform particular task
Prominent in horticultural and agricultural communities
Often made up of youth groups

43. Cooperatives Surpluses are shared among the members
One person, one vote
Farmer cooperatives
e.g. in western India
Craft cooperatives
e.g. in Panama

44. Activist Groups
Formed with the goal of protesting certain conditions such as political repression or human rights violations
e.g. CO-MADRES
Also formed because of concerns about personal problems
e.g. AA

45. Civil Society
Diverse interest groups that operate outside the government to organize aspects of life
the Church
Trade Unions
Environmental groups

46. “We conclude that the concept of “race” has no validity as a biological category in the human species. Because it homogenizes widely varying individuals, it impedes research and understanding of the true nature of human biological variations.”
AAA Statement on Race, 1996
Race

47. Types of Political Organizations
Bands
Headman
Tribes
Headman / Big-man
Chiefdoms
Chief
States
King/Queen/ President

48. Band Societies ~ Summary
Related by blood or marriage
Live together and are loosely associated with a territory in which they forage
Egalitarian

49. Bands Foraging groups Comprises a small group of households
Between 20 and a few hundred people
Membership is flexible
Leader is “first among equals”
Leader has no power, only authority and influence

50. Band Societies: Leadership
Decision-making is by consensus.
Leaders are older men and women.
Leaders cannot enforce their decisions; They can only persuade.
Sharing and generosity are important sources of respect.

51. Band Societies: Social Order
Maintained by gossip, ridicule, and avoidance.
Violations of norms are sins.
Offenders may be controlled through ritual means such as public confessions.
Offender is defined as a patient rather than a criminal.

52. Tribes ~ Summary
Members consider themselves descended from the same ancestor.
Found primarily among pastoralists and horticulturalists.
Egalitarian
Leadership: Bigman

53. Big-Man Societies
Big Man: A local entrepreneur who successfully mobilizes and manipulates wealth on behalf of his group in order to hold feasts and enhance his status and rank relative to other leaders in the region.
He has no formal authority or power, nor does he necessarily have more wealth.

54. Tribal Societies
Horticulture and pastoralism dominant, sometimes limited agriculture
Comprises several bands, each with similar lifestyle, language and territory
Leadership combines both achieved and ascribed statuses
Leader resolves conflict
Leader relies on authority and influence

55. Big-man, big-woman Personalistic, favor-based leadership
Heavy responsibilities in regulating internal affairs
Often, sons of big-men are big-men too
Common in Papua New Guinea
- Sahlins 1963, Strathern 1971

56. Chiefdoms ~ Summary Allied tribes and villages under one leader
More centralized and complex
Heritable systems of rank
Social stratification
Chiefship is an “office”
Achievement is a measure of success

57. Chiefdom Societies Characteristics: Monumental architecture
Distinct ceremonial centers
Elaborate grave goods reflect high social status
Larger settlements by smaller villages
Cultivators and pastoralists

58. Definition of a State
A formal organization of roles in which legal and military authority is vested and in which authority is considered by the members of the state to be its primary function
A special group charged with allocating authority to use physical force to achieve peace and conformance with law and custom and to maintain territorial integrity against external threats

59. State Societies
Central government with monopoly over the use of force.
More populous, heterogeneous, and powerful than other political organizations.
Able to organize large populations for coordinated action.
Defend against external threats.

60. Characteristics of States
Define citizenship and rights
Maintain law and order
Maintain standing armies
Keep track of their citizens
Have the power the tax
Power to manipulate information
Hierarchical and patriarchal

61. Political Change in States Today
Nation v. State
The Kurds
Transnational Nations
Puerto Rico
Democratization
Soviet Union
Women in politics
Become “like men”?
Globalization

62. WAR
Armed conflict between groups of people who constitute separate territorial teams or political communities
Some groups seldom, if ever, war while with others it is endemic
Interpersonal violence and armed conflict are a tendency of all societies when certain internal or external pressures arise

63. WAR IS:
A significant factor in demographic and political change within the last 10,000 years
Attested to by a great deal of archaeological evidence worldwide
Not innate per se, but in historical terms it seems to be one of the universally recurring realities of human existence
all Hell, as General W.T. Sherman once noted

64. Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers
Depending on the circumstances, low-level conflict can and does occur between foragers
Yet hunter-gatherers seldom try to annihilate each other. Why?
The loss of 2 male individuals per generation in a band of 30 represents more than 10 percent of all adult male deaths
Small bands cannot sustain fatalities at these levels and survive.
Protection of women from violent death is even more critical from the biological standpoint. Why?

65. Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers
Armed conflict between simple hunter-gatherers usually takes the form of personal feuds between individuals; typically older men who have long-standing conflicts.
Just as in other social animals, conflict between groups of hunter-gatherers is more frequent during periods of population pressure and environmental stress.

66. Warfare Among Sedentary Village Societies
Warfare is much more common among sedentary populations than with foragers
The more people have invested in fixed elements in their environment the more likely they are to defend it.
Sedentary groups cannot resolve disputes by moving off to another location.
Example: Among the Yanomami almost 33% of all male deaths and 7% of female deaths were due to armed conflict.

67. Why War? War as instinct: War is innate.
Not all societies are warlike, and most societies only war occasionally.
There are alternatives to war which are often chosen.
If it were deeply instinctive, the complex means of conflict resolution and social organization would not evolve.

68. Why War? War as sport and Entertainment
Martial arts, war movies, war games, guns and military paraphernalia, are all very popular. People are fascinated with war
In the United States the majority of people do not have any concept of what war is really about. And, in large part, some of modern warfare has been “sterilized” through the use of stand-off weaponry.
No one who has been in direct combat views it as entertainment. As historian Stephen Ambrose puts it, it is the worst experience a human being can find themselves in.
In the past people had to kill others with their bare hands. It was brutal, direct, and required an immense amount of courage.
War is terrible destructive, especially to non-industrial societies. The cost in resources is very high in most cases.

69. Why War?
War as revenge:
This is frequently the stated motivation in many non-state conflicts.
However, all societies have ways to circumvent war for revenge, and all societies have ways in which the aggrieved parties can choose not to retaliate indefinitely
So revenge may be an emic explanation, but it is not an underlying and universal cause for warfare.

70. Why War? War as a struggle for Reproductive Success
The warriors get the girls, and the successful warriors (who live, and gain prestige as well as plunder) get more of the girls. Warriors have status and are intimidating to others.
HOWEVER, those who live by the sword usually die by the sword. Men who are aggressive warriors typically die young, and are often pre-occupied with the conflicts to the detriment of their family life.

71. Why War? War as a Struggle for material benefits
In general warfare is expensive in terms of human costs, but the larger the society the more able they are to absorb these costs.
The immediate material gains of war may be significant despite the casualties.
less than 1% of male deaths in Europe and the U.S. have been battlefield deaths in the last century, and that includes WWI where almost ¼ of the Entire European male population died, and WWII where over half a billion people were killed.

72. Why War: Conclusions
Band and village people go to war when they lack alternative solutions to conflicts related to procuring resources in response to population pressure and environmental depletion.
Chiefdoms and States go to war because it is the primary means by which the ruling elite solidifies control, gains resources, and acquires territory.