1. Archaeology
Method and Practice

2. ARCHAEOLOGY Locating Sites The Excavation Investigating the Evidence
Dating Methods

3. LOCATING SITES How do we know where to find archaeological sites?
Sometimes they are obvious (eg. Colosseum)
However, most are found by chance.

4. LOCATING SITES Chance vs Investigation
Chance finds are common, lost sites may be exposed by natural elements such as weather, or by human activity such as farming, construction, warfare, fishing, dredging etc.
Eg. Pompeii was found when a drain was constructed in late 1500’s.

5. In 1974, workers digging for a village water project in China found some strange pottery items. Their discovery led to the unearthing of the great Terracotta Army.

6. LOCATING SITES
Investigation is actively looking for a site. There are several methods used by archaeologists.
Written Documents: old maps, ancient texts
Scientific Methods: Aerial photography, Surveying, Satellite imagery, Photographic Probes.
Trial Trenches: usually 1m by 1m “test” pits across a site.

7. Satellite Imagery of Angkor Wat temple complex, Cambodia

8. EXCAVATION What happens on a dig?
The excavation is a process of recovering, collecting and recording information.
There are many steps to the process of excavation. Once a site has been located and a decision is made to excavate, the site director selects a team of experts.
Some experts used on a dig:
Cartographer
Anthropologist
Epigrapher
Architect
Botanist
Numismatist
Geochemist
Radiologist
Climatologist
Zoologist
Pathologist
Papyrologist

9. EXCAVATION The Excavation team Title Job Description Director
Supervises dig, maintains site records.
Assistant Director
Care and allocation of equipment. Finance.
Site Supervisor
Responsible for specific section of the site.
Labelling of artefacts and recording relevant information.
Diggers
Unearth items, clear soil from around artefacts.
Recorders
Record position of artefacts, enter details in a log.
Measurers
Record location of artefact at the site, measure dimensions.
Washers
Wash artefacts.
Sifters
Sift excavated dirt to locate small finds.
Photographers
Record finds and strata profiles.
Surveyors
Survey the site, draw up layout of site.
Lab Experts
Preserve / repair artefacts.
Illustrators
Scale drawings of artefacts.

10. EXCAVATION Methods of Excavation: a) Grid Excavation
This is where the site is divided into squares of boxes in a given size. Each square is numbered and then excavated leaving a wall (called a baulk) in between.
Each baulk provides a vertical record of the layers that have been dug through. The layers are called strata and each one is labelled with everything found in them.

11. BAULK
Profile of a Baulk

14. EXCAVATION b) Open-area excavation
This is where the site is uncovered layer by layer. Different strata are not revealed.

15. EXCAVATION STRATIGRAPHY
Generally, a site depends on the principle of Stratigraphy; That each settlement on a site will leave a layer of debris. Normally, the oldest strata will be the deepest.
Stratigraphy can become very complex, due to movements of the earths crust and intrusions (such as wells or pits).

18. INVESTIGATING THE EVIDENCE
Archaeologists follow three basic stages of investigation.
The archaeologist asks question at each stage of the investigation to determine the relevance and reliability of the evidence.

19. OBSERVATION CLASSIFICATION & RECORDING INTERPRETATION
Stage 1:
OBSERVATION
Collection of information.
- Where was it located?
- Who used it?
- Purpose / function?
Stage 2:
CLASSIFICATION
& RECORDING
Place objects in correct context
Record important information.
- Is it authentic?
- What can be learnt from it?
- Does it relate to other evidence?
Stage 3:
INTERPRETATION
Draw conclusions by looking at the evidence and studying patterns that may emerge.

20. DATING THE PAST Prehistory & History
Historical
Times
Prehistory = before civilisation (writing)
History = Since Writing

21. DATING THE PAST Historical Dating The measurement of time
Calendars have been used based on natural events, eg. sun and moon, Ancient Egyptians based time on the annual flooding of the Nile.
Based on written documents. (After 3500 B.C)
Most used is based on Christ’s life. AD (anno Domini,) and BC (Before Christ)

22. DATING THE PAST Relative vs Absolute Dating Methods
Relative Dating = Gives a general idea of the time period an artefact comes from. Often dated through chronological sequence (in relation to something else)
Absolute Dating = Gives an absolute date in calendar years (also called scientific dating)

23. (Earliest Old Stone Age)
Iron Age
1,000 BC
Bronze Age
3,000
Copper Age
5,000
Neolithic
(New Stone Age)
9,000
Mesolithic
(Middle Stone Age)
10,000
Upper Palaeolithic
(Latest Old Stone Age)
The Three Age System:
Stone, Bronze, Iron
30,000
Middle Palaeolithic
(Middle Old Stone Age)
100,000
Lower Palaeolithic
(Earliest Old Stone Age)
2 Million

24. DATING THE PAST RELATIVE DATING TECHNIQUS
TYPE?
DESCRIPTION?
USES?
Stratigraphic
Typology
Seriation
Three Age system
The study of layers in the earth (strata). The oldest is at the bottom.
Classifying objects according to their characteristics. Compare scientifically dated objects.
The arrangement of artefacts in a chronological sequence.
3 stages of technological development by humans – Stone age, Bronze age and Iron Iron age,
Grid excavation. Sites where geological change is noted. Inside test pits.
Items found in large quantities eg.pottery
Artefacts found in large quantities – similar uses to typology dating
Anything made by humans out of stone, copper, bronze or iron.

25. Typology of Turkish Pipes

27. DATING THE PAST Absolute Dating Methods 1. Radiocarbon Dating
All living things absorb isotope carbon-14 from the atmosphere.
At the point of death this process ceases.
C-14 begins to decay at a known rate > 5730 years half is decayed (“half life”)
By measuring the amount of C-14 left in an organism, scientists can tell when it died, therefore its age.
Dates expressed in + or – BP. That means: something could be 2000 years + or – 100 years
Limit is 50, 000 years.

28. How C14 Dating Works

29. DATING THE PAST Absolute Dating Methods 2. AMS Dating
Recent development in radiocarbon dating
Can date very small amounts of material containing C-14
Will extend radiocarbon dating back to 100,000 years
First absolute dating method used in Rock Art. (pigments of paint from ochre trees or charcoal)

30. DATING THE PAST Absolute Dating Methods
3. Tree-Ring Dating (Dendrochronology)
Dates timber objects
Counting the growth rings of a tree
Most species ring annually or every two years.
Comparing overlapping trees (in age) can reveal a continuous sequence for thousands of years.

31. Dendrochronology
(Tree Ring Dating)

32. DATING THE PAST Absolute Dating Methods 4. Thermoluminescence Dating
Used to date pottery and clay that has been fired
Clay gives off radiation. This displaces electrons which become trapped in the structure of the clay.
When re-heated, electrons go back to original positions, giving off light. The light is measured to determine age of the clay since firing.
Dates to 35,000 years

33. DATING THE PAST Absolute Dating Methods 5. Potassium-Argon Dating
Used to date volcanic rock
Similar to radiocarbon dating
Volcanic rock contains potassium-40 which converts to argon-40 as it ages.
Half life of 1.3 billion years
Useful in dating fossil remains (human and other) embedded in volcanic rock.

34. Which Dating Method?
CHOOSE THE METHOD OF DATING FOR THE FOLLOWING, AND STATE WETHER IT IS A RELATIVE OR ABSOLUTE DATING METHOD.
Inscription on a stone wall
Stone tool from Africa found without any other material
Human remains found in a tomb
Wooden beam found as part of Viking ship
A glass bottle found during an excavation
The Great Pyramid in Giza
Aboriginal rock art painting
Piece of charred bread from stomach of a bog body
A group of stone tools varying in style
A collection of pottery from a site in Athens
Single pottery piece from Sparta
A bronze axe from Italy
Papyrus paper from Ancient Egypt
A fossil of a hominid jaw from East Africa
A coin found at Byblos in Lebanon
Seed residue from a stone hand axe

35. Research and explain how the following dating methods work
Carbon 14 (radiocarbon) dating
Potassium – Argon dating
Dendrochronology
Thermoluminescence dating