1. Introduction to Digital Libraries Digital Data (2)

2. Data
Music

3. Why digitize audio?
100 years of data on a Wide variety of unstable media
Wide variety of playback mechanism

4. Analog to Digital Recording Chain
ADC
Microphone converts acoustic to electrical energy. It’s a transducer.
Continuously varying electrical energy is an analog of the sound pressure wave.
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts analog to digital electrical signal.
Digital signal transmits binary numbers.
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts digital signal in computer to analog for your headphones.

5. Wire Recordings Time Frame Technology Use The 1930s and '40s
Magnetized wire
Use
Field correspondents used portable versions in World War Two. Their repair kits included extra wire, grips and a soldering iron.

6. Acetate tape Time Frame Technology Uses Introduced in the early 1950s
Widely in use during 1960s
Technology
Magnetic signal on acetate tape
curls, shrinks and loses mass over time.
Does not stretch or deform but breaks easily
Uses
Home recording
Archiving older recording
Broadcast radio recording

7. Polyester tape Time Frame Technology Uses 1970s
Magnetic signal on polyester tape
Excellent sound fidelity
Polyester tape deforms (stretches) easily
Restored by gentle heating in the so-called "easy bake" oven
Uses
Home recording
Archiving older recording
Broadcast radio recording

8. Digital Audio Basics Bit Depth Bit Rate Sampling Rate Frequency
Equalization
Sound Scrubbing

9. Bit Depth
In digital audio, bit depth describes the potential accuracy of a particular piece of hardware or software that processes audio data.

10. Binary representation
16 bits can represent 65,536 possible speaker cone or microphone diaphragm positions (possible levels). This is enough for very high quality audio
The current maximum resolution used is 24 bits. This equates to 16,777,216 positions. nobody has manufactured a converter accurate to more than 24 bits.

11. Bit Rate In general, describes the data transfer rate
In digital audio, describes the kilobits per second (kbs) in your file
Standard MP3 file has 128 kbs
Very high quality audio has 320 kbs

12. Frequency
The number of vibrations in a sound wave per unit of time (Spectrum of sound).
Measured in hertz (Hz)

13. Equalization
In audio processing, equalization (EQ) is the process of modifying the frequency envelope of a sound.
The frequencies are controlled by bands (ranges of frequencies)
Controls the overall quality of the sound

14. Sampling Rate
The number of times per second the program converting the analog to digital records the sound.
CD sampling rate is 44.1 kHz
Higher rates kHz, 96 kHz, and 192 kHz.
Telephone speech is sampled at 8 kHz.

15. Synthesis
Audio synthesis is the art and science of generating audio signals.
A synthesiser is an electronic instrument capable of producing musical sounds

16. Audio Formats Emerging Archival Standards Delivery formats
AIFF – Audio Interchange File Format
BWF – Broadcast Wave Format
Delivery formats
Real – proprietary streaming protocol
MP3 – the standard
MPEG4 – multimedia streaming standard

17. Data
GIS and Maps

18. GIS Defined
In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including operating personnel and the data that go into the system.

19. Data for a GIS comes in three basic forms:
Spatial data -What Maps are Made Of
Spatial data, made up of points, lines, and areas, is at the heart of every GIS. Spatial data forms the locations and shapes of map features such as buildings, streets, or cities.  
Tabular data—adding information to maps Tabular data is information describing a map feature. For example, a map of customer locations may be linked to demographic information about those customers.  
Image data—using images to build maps Image data includes such diverse elements as satellite images, aerial photographs, and scanned

20. Is it 'spatial' or 'geographic'?
'geographic' has to do with the Earth
its two-dimensional surface
its three-dimensional atmosphere, oceans, sub-surface
'spatial' has to do with any multi-dimensional frame
medical images are referenced to the human body
engineering drawings are referenced to a mechanical object
architectural drawings are referenced to a building

21. Enter GIS
A computer-based tool for holding, displaying, and manipulating huge amounts of spatial data.

22. GIS Basics Points Lines Polygons Layers Features Attributes
Basic Set math
Unions
Intersections

23. Different Maps for Different Functions
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) digital line graph (DLG) data of roads.
USGS DLG of rivers.
USGS digital elevation (DEM).
USGS DLG of contour lines (hypsography).

24. GIS Basics Builds relationships between data by geographic location
 x, y and z coordinates
Latitude, Longitude 
ZIP code
Highway marker
Other control identifiers

25. Global Positioning Systems
GPS is a constellation of 27 satellites (31+/- Satellites orbiting the earth) orbiting the earth which send signals to GPS receiver on earth.
The receiver measures the travel time of signals transmitted from at least three satellites. The receiver calculates its distance from the satellite.

26. HOW TO GET A POSITION
Need signal from at least four SVs for 3D position
One SV provides a time reference
Distance to three remaining SVs is determined by observing the GPS signal travel time from SV to the receiver
With three known points, and distances to each, we can determine the GPS receiver’s position (trilateration)

27. Concept of Vector and Raster Real World Raster Representation
Vector Representation
point
line
polygon

28. Representing Data using Raster Model
area is covered by grid with (usually) equal-sized cells
location of each cell calculated from origin of grid:
“two down, three over”
cells often called pixels (picture elements); raster data often called image data
attributes are recorded by assigning each cell a single value based on the majority feature (attribute) in the cell, such as land use type.
easy to do overlays/analyses, just by ‘combining’ corresponding cell values: “yield= rainfall + fertilizer” (why raster is faster, at least for some things)
simple data structure:
directly store each layer as a single table (basically, each is analagous to a “spreadsheet”)
computer data base management system not required (although many raster GIS systems incorporate them)
corn
wheat
fruit
clover
oats 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

29. Raster Data Structures Runlength Compression (for single layer)
Full Matrix--162 bytes
1,7,2,17,3,18
1,7,2,16,3,18
1,7,2,15,3,18
1,6,2,14,3,18
1,5,3,18
1,3,3,18
Run Length (row)--44 bytes
This is a “lossless” compression, as opposed to “lossy,” since the original data can be exactly reproduced.
Now, GIS packages generally rely on commercial compression routines. Pkzip is the most common, general purpose routine. MrSid (from Lizard Technology)and ECW (from ER Mapper) are used for images. All these essentially use the same concept. Occasionally, data is still delivered to you in run-length compression, especially in remote sensing applications.
“Value thru column” coding.
1st number is value, 2nd is
last column with that value.

30. Applications Military (DoD) – civilian uses now exceed military
Space Travel (NASA)
Survey, Mapping & GIS
Resource and Asset Management
Environmental & Forestry
Mining, Oil & Gas
Agriculture
Utilities & Construction
Transportation
Vehicle Security (Fleet Management)
Public Safety
Emergency Management, Search & Rescue
Crime Prevention
Timing & Synchronization
(banking, telecommunications)
LBS - Location Based Services
(cell phones, wireless web)
Precision Construction
& Agriculture
Solar GPS Cattle Herder
(noise or electric shock)

31. Other Applications… - Pet Collar - Teddy Bears, Backpacks - Implants…
Tracking Systems
- Pet Collar
- Teddy Bears, Backpacks
- Implants…
Xega injectable GPS chip
($4,000 + $350/month)
Mexico (requires additional
wearable accessory)
GTX Ambulator
(Alzheimer’s GPS Shoes)
(tracking and geo-fence)
Nano GPS tracker ($200 + $45/month),
panic button, for people or nativity scenes…
Pet collars
Web or cell connection
Virtual/Geo-Fence
Garmin Astro Pet Tracker
(communicates with base unit)

32. The Future… Does GPS make a dumber…?
Driver follows GPS directions onto train tracks…
GPS directions send Mercedes downstream…
Trucker drives past sign, becomes wedged in small
farm lane…
Bus driver follows GPS directions, ignores signs, plows into overpass…

33. GIS Metadata FGDC – the Metadata Standard for GIS
Federal Geographic Data Committee
Under the auspices of the U.S. Geological Survey
They refer to the standard as Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata (CSDGM)
Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) is for transferring digital spatial data sets between spatial data software.

34. Digital Video

35. Video
Video comes from a camera, which records what it sees as a sequence of images
Image frames comprise the video
Frame rate = presentation of successive frames
minimal image change between frames
Frequency of frames is measured in frames per second [fps].
Sequencing of still images creates the illusion of movement
> 16 fps is “smooth”
Standards: is NTSC, 24 for movies, 25 is PAL, 60 is HDTV

36. Mechanical Television

37. The Video Data Firehose
To play one SECOND of uncompressed 16-bit color, 640 X 480 resolution, digital video requires approximately 18 MB of storage.
One minute would require about 1 GB.
Without compression, digital video would not be possible with current storage technology.

38. Data Reduction through Scaling
The easiest way to save memory is to store less, e.g. through size scaling. Original digital video standards only stored a video window of 160 X 120 pixels. A reduction of 1/16th the size of a 640 X 480 window. A 320 X 240 digital video window size is currently about standard, yielding a 4 to 1 data reduction.
A further scaling application involves time instead of space. In temporal scaling the number of frames per second (fps), is reduced from 30 to 24.

39. Frame Compaction
The individual frames (intraframe compression) is a sequence of three standard text file compression schemes. Run-length encoding (RLE), Huffman coding, and arithmetic coding.
RLE replaces sequences of identical values with the number of times the value occurs followed by the value (e.g., ==>> ).
Huffman coding replaces the most frequently occurring values|strings with the smallest codes.

40. Interframe Compression (MPEG style)
Interframe compression takes advantage of minimal changes from one frame to the next to achieve dramatic compression. Instead of storing complete information about each frame only the difference information between frames is stored.

41. MPEG: Motion Picture Experts Group
Compression for Storage
1.5Mbps
Frame-based Compression
MPEG-2 (1994)
Digital TV
6.0 Mbps
MPEG-4 (1998)
Multimedia Applications, digital TV, synthetic graphics
Lower bit rate
Object based compression
MPEG-7
Multimedia Content Description Interface, XML-based
MPEG-21
Digital identification, IP rights management

42. HDTV 2x horizontal and vertical resolution
SDTV: 480 line, 720 pixels per line, frames per second
x 16 bits/pixel = 168 Mbits/sec uncompressed
HDTV: expanded to 1080 lines, 1920 pixels per line, 60 fps
x 16 bits/pixel = 1990 Mbits/sec uncompressed
HDTV Audio Compression is based on the Dolby AC- 3 system with sampling rate 48kHz and perceptually coded

43. Comparison
Current TV
HDTV

44. Original Timeline of HDTV
First began in 60’s at NHK, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation.
In 1993, FCC suggested an alliance that could create the best possible system
November 1998: HDTV transmissions begin at 27 stations in the top 10 markets
November 1999: digital broadcasts in the next 20 largest markets
May 2002: remaining commercial stations must convert
2003: public stations must convert to digital broadcasts
2004: stations must simulcast at least 75% of their analog programming on HDTV
2005: stations must simulcast 100% of their analog programming
2006: stations relinquish their current analog spectrum
NTSC TV sets will no longer be able to pick up broadcast signals

45. Interleaver Stream Graph

46. Trellis Encoding
In HDTV, the trellis encoder is a convolution encoder followed by a symbol mapper.
This provides good noise immunity (somehow)
HDTV encoder uses 12 trellis coders in parallel

47. Convolution Encoding Input is an m bit symbol
Output is an n bit symbol
m/n is the rate (HDTV uses 2/3)
K is the reach: the number of output symbols that each input symbol affects (HDTV has K=3)

48. Trellis Encoding (cont.)
Trellis Encoder used in HDTV
“pre-coder”
“ungerboeck encoder”
Source: ATSC standard A53, revision b

49. Trellis Encoding (cont.)
12 Trellis Encoders
Source: ATSC standard A53, revision b

50. Comparison (current TV)

51. Comparison (HDTV)

52. HDTV and NTSC Specifications

53. MPEG-7 Data + Multimedia Content Description Scheme
Description Definition Language (XML-based)
Still not ‘final’, but close
Does not deal with data, but meta-data transmission
Description Scheme + Content Description, e.g:
Table of content
Still Images
Summaries
links
etc.
How does the Description data get generated? How is it used?

54. Mpeg-7 Examples
 <VideoText id="VideoText1" textType="Superimposed">
<MediaTime>
<MediaTimePoint> T0:0:0:0 </MediaTimePoint>
<MediaDuration> PT6S </MediaDuration>
</MediaTime>
<Text xml:lang="en-us">CNN World News</Text>
</VideoText>
<TextProperty>
<FreeText xml:lang="en"> World Today </FreeText>
<SyncTime>
<MediaRelTimePoint>PT01N30F </MediaRelTimePoint>
<MediaDuration> PT2S </MediaDuration>
</SyncTime>
</TextProperty>
<Place>

55. Compression Schemes Quicktime (Apple), Video for Windows
Open architecture allowing different codecs
Motion JPEG – no interframe compression
Cinepak is an asymmetric codec designed for 24-bit video in a 320 X 240 window for single-speed CD-ROM drives. Compression typically takes 300 times longer than decompression.
Indeo asymmetric codec (Intel). Playback can take place on a Intel 486 processor without any hardware assistance. Less efficient than Cinepak
DVI Digital Video Interactive requires off-line supercomputer processing power for the compression.