2. 23. Monopolistic Competition & Oligopoly

3. Oligopoly small number of firms interdependent behavior
barriers to entry

4. examples
Airlines
Automobiles
Cereal
Soft Drinks

5. what types of barriers? economies of scale auto industry
legal restrictions
brand recognition
cereal, soft drinks
control over essential resource

6. Firm behavior
no one model of behavior
set of possible behaviors

7. Cartel firms collude to act like a single monopolist
restrict output, charge higher price
block entry

8. Price leadership informal collusion dominant firm sets price
other firms follow to avoid a price war
steel, airline, auto industries

9. cartels are tough to maintain
each firm has output quota
each firm tempted to cheat
tough to block new entry

10. Collusion and Cartels firms may collude divide market fix prices
illegal in U.S.
examples
OPEC
ADM & others

11. Monopolistic Competition
large # of firms
product differentiation
compete w/ quality, price, marketing
no one firm dominates
no collusion among firms
free to enter/exit

12. examples
running shoes
clothing
cleaning supplies
beauty products

13. product differentiation
physical differences
color, size, taste ...
location
convenience, drug stores
services
delivery
image
high quality vs. value

14. Firm Behavior, short run
demand curve downward sloping
less elastic than perfect competition
more elastic than a monopolist
choose price & output
like a monopolist

15. P, cost
Q (jeans/day) MC D MR
$70
150

16. ($70-$20)(150) = $7500 economic profit P, cost MC ATC $70 $20 D MR
Q (jeans/day) MC
ATC D MR
$70
150
$20

17. Long Run zero economic profit why? economic profit leads to entry
economic loss leads to exit
no entry/exit with zero economic profit

18. Excess capacity firms output is not at minimum of ATC output too small
loss of economic welfare

19. Advertising & marketing
firms in monopolistic competition spend more on this than perfect competition
cost curves are higher
is this a waste? Or
do consumer benefit from greater selection?

21. Summary between perfect competition & monopoly
monopolistic comp. chooses P & Q like a monopolistic
oligopolist behavior interdependent
importance of product differentiation
importance of strategic behavior

22. Types of Market Structure
In order to develop principles and make predictions about markets and how producers will behave in them, economists have developed four principal models of market structure:
perfect competition
monopoly
oligopoly
monopolistic competition

23. This system of market structures is based on two dimensions:
Types of Market Structure
This system of market structures is based on two dimensions:
The number of producers in the market (one, few, or many)
Whether the goods offered are identical or differentiated .
Differentiated goods are goods that are different but considered somewhat substitutable by consumers (think Coke versus Pepsi).

24. The Meaning of Monopoly
Our First Departure from Perfect Competition…
A monopolist is a firm that is the only producer of a good that has no close substitutes. An industry controlled by a monopolist is known as a monopoly. e.g. De Beers
The ability of a monopolist to raise its price above the competitive level by reducing output is known as market power.
What do monopolists do with this market power? Let’s take a look at the following graph…

25. What a Monopolist Does
Under perfect competition, the price and quantity are determined by supply and demand. Here, the equilibrium is at C, where the price is PC and the quantity is QC. A monopolist reduces the quantity supplied to QM, and moves up the demand curve from C to M, raising the price to PM.

26. Why Do Monopolies Exist?
A monopolist has market power and as a result will charge higher prices and produce less output than a competitive industry. This generates profit for the monopolist in the short run and long run.
Profits will not persist in the long run unless there is a barrier to entry. This can take the form of
control of natural resources or inputs,
economies of scale,
technological superiority, or
legal restrictions imposed by governments,
including patents and copyrights.

27. Economies of Scale and Natural Monopoly
A monopoly created and sustained by economies of scale is called a natural monopoly.
It arises when economies of scale provide a large cost advantage to having all of an industry’s output produced by a single firm.
Under such circumstances, average total cost is declining over the output range relevant for the industry.
This creates a barrier to entry because an established monopolist has lower average total cost than any smaller firm.

28. Economies of Scale Create Natural Monopoly
A natural monopoly can arise when fixed costs required to operate are very high  the firm’s ATC curve declines over the range of output at which price is greater than or equal to average total cost. This gives the firm economies of scale over the entire range of output at which the firm would at least break even in the long run. As a result, a given quantity of output is produced more cheaply by one large firm than by two or more smaller firms.

29. How a Monopolist Maximizes Profit
The price-taking firm’s optimal output rule is to produce the output level at which the marginal cost of the last unit produced is equal to the market price.
A monopolist, in contrast, is the sole supplier of its good. So its demand curve is simply the market demand curve, which is downward sloping.
This downward slope creates a “wedge” between the price of the good and the marginal revenue of the good—the change in revenue generated by producing one more unit.

30. Comparing the Demand Curves of a Perfectly Competitive Firm and a Monopolist
An individual perfectly competitive firm cannot affect the market price of the good  it faces a horizontal demand curve DC , as shown in panel (a). A monopolist, on the other hand, can affect the price (sole supplier in the industry)  its demand curve is the market demand curve, DM, as shown in panel (b). To sell more output it must lower the price; by reducing output it raises the price.

31. The Monopolist’s Demand Curve and Marginal Revenue
Due to the price effect of an increase in output, the marginal revenue curve of a firm with market power always lies below its demand curve. So a profit-maximizing monopolist chooses the output level at which marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue—not to price.
As a result, the monopolist produces less and sells its output at a higher price than a perfectly competitive industry would. It earns a profit in the short run and the long run.

32. The Monopolist’s Demand Curve and Marginal Revenue
To emphasize how the quantity and price effects offset each other for a firm with market power, notice the hill-shaped total revenue curve:
This reflects the fact that at low levels of output, the quantity effect is stronger than the price effect: as the monopolist sells more, it has to lower the price on only very few units, so the price effect is small.
As output rises beyond 10 diamonds, total revenue actually falls. This reflects the fact that at high levels of output, the price effect is stronger than the quantity effect: as the monopolist sells more, it now has to lower the price on many units of output, making the price effect very large.

33. The Monopolist’s Profit- Maximizing Output and Price
To maximize profit, the monopolist compares marginal cost with marginal revenue.
If marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, De Beers increases profit by producing more; if marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, De Beers increases profit by producing less. So the monopolist maximizes its profit by using the optimal output rule:
At the monopolist’s profit-maximizing quantity of output,
MR = MC

34. The Monopolist’s Profit- Maximizing Output and Price
The optimal output rule: the profit maximizing level of output for the monopolist is at MR = MC, shown by point A, where the marginal cost and marginal revenue curves cross at an output of 8 diamonds. The price De Beers can charge per diamond is found by going to the point on the demand curve directly above point A, (point B here) —a price of $600 per diamond. It makes a profit of $400 × 8 = $3,200.

35. Monopoly versus Perfect Competition
P = MC at the perfectly competitive firm’s profit-maximizing quantity of output
P > MR = MC at the monopolist’s profit-maximizing quantity of output
Compared with a competitive industry, a monopolist does the following:
Produces a smaller quantity: QM < QC
Charges a higher price: PM > PC
Earns a profit

36. The Monopolist’s Profit
Profit = TR − TC
= (PM × QM) −
(ATCM × QM)
= (PM − ATCM) × QM
In this case, the marginal cost curve is upward sloping and the average total cost curve is U-shaped. The monopolist maximizes profit by producing the level of output at which MR = MC, given by point A, generating quantity QM. It finds its monopoly price, PM , from the point on the demand curve directly above point A, point B here. The average total cost of QM is shown by point C. Profit is given by the area of the shaded rectangle.

37. Monopoly and Public Policy
By reducing output and raising price above marginal cost, a monopolist captures some of the consumer surplus as profit and causes deadweight loss. To avoid deadweight loss, government policy attempts to prevent monopoly behavior.
When monopolies are “created” rather than natural, governments should act to prevent them from forming and break up existing ones.
The government policies used to prevent or eliminate monopolies are known as antitrust policy.

38. Monopoly Causes Inefficiency
Panel (a) depicts a perfectly competitive industry: output is QC and market price, PC , is equal is to MC. Since price is exactly equal to each producer’s cost of production per unit, there is no producer surplus. Total surplus is therefore equal to consumer surplus, the entire shaded area.
Panel (b) depicts the industry under monopoly: the monopolist decreases output to QM and charges PM. Consumer surplus (blue area) has shrunk because a portion of it is has been captured as profit (green area). Total surplus falls: the deadweight loss (orange area) represents the value of mutually beneficial transactions that do not occur because of monopoly behavior.

39. Preventing Monopoly
Dealing with Natural Monopoly
Breaking up a monopoly that isn’t natural is clearly a good idea, but it’s not so clear whether a natural monopoly, one in which large producers have lower average total costs than small producers, should be broken up, because this would raise average total cost.
Yet even in the case of a natural monopoly, a profit-maximizing monopolist acts in a way that causes inefficiency—it charges consumers a price that is higher than marginal cost, and therefore prevents some potentially beneficial transactions.

40. Dealing with Natural Monopoly
What can public policy do about this? There are two common answers…
One answer is public ownership, but publicly owned companies are often poorly run.
A common response in the United States is price regulation. A price ceiling imposed on a monopolist does not create shortages as long as it is not set too low.
There always remains the option of doing nothing; monopoly is a bad thing, but the cure may be worse than the disease.

41. Regulated and Unregulated Natural Monopoly
In panel (a), if the monopolist is allowed to charge PM, it makes a profit, shown by the green area; consumer surplus is shown by the blue area. If it is regulated and must charge the lower price PR, output increases from QM to QR, and consumer surplus increases.
Panel (b) shows what happens when the monopolist must charge a price equal to average total cost, the price PR*. Output expands to QR*, and consumer surplus is now the entire blue area. The monopolist makes zero profit. This is the greatest consumer surplus possible when the monopolist is allowed to at least break even, making PR* the best regulated price.

42. Price Discrimination
Up to this point we have considered only the case of a single-price monopolist, one who charges all consumers the same price. As the term suggests, not all monopolists do this.
In fact, many if not most monopolists find that they can increase their profits by charging different customers different prices for the same good: they engage in price discrimination.

43. Price Discrimination (continued)
Example: Airline tickets
If you are willing to buy a nonrefundable ticket a month in advance and stay over a Saturday night, the round trip may cost only $150,but if you have to go on a business trip tomorrow, and come back the next day, the round trip might cost $550.

44. The Logic of Price Discrimination
Price discrimination is profitable when consumers differ in their sensitivity to the price. A monopolist would like to charge high prices to consumers willing to pay them without driving away others who are willing to pay less.
It is profit-maximizing to charge higher prices to low-elasticity consumers and lower prices to high elasticity ones.

45. Two Types of Airline Customers
Air Sunshine has two types of customers, business travelers willing to pay $550 per ticket and students willing to pay $150 per ticket. There are 2,000 of each kind of customer. Air Sunshine has constant marginal cost of $125 per seat. If Air Sunshine could charge these two types of customers different prices, it would maximize its profit by charging business travelers $550 and students $150 per ticket. It would capture all of the consumer surplus as profit.

46. Price Discrimination and Elasticity
A monopolist able to charge each consumer his or her willingness to pay for the good achieves perfect price discrimination and does not cause inefficiency because all mutually beneficial transactions are exploited.
In this case, the consumers do not get any consumer surplus! The entire surplus is captured by the monopolist in the form of profit.
The following graphs depict different types of price discrimination…

47. Price Discrimination
By increasing the number of different prices charged, the monopolist captures more of the consumer surplus and makes a large profit.

48. Perfect Price Discrimination
In the case of perfect price discrimination, a monopolist charges each consumer his or her willingness to pay; the monopolist’s profit is given by the shaded triangle.

49. Perfect Price Discrimination
Perfect price discrimination is probably never possible in practice. The inability to achieve perfect price discrimination is a problem of prices as economic signals because consumer’s true willingness to pay can easily be disguised.
However, monopolists do try to move in the direction of perfect price discrimination through a variety of pricing strategies.
Common techniques for price discrimination are:
Advance purchase restrictions
Volume discounts
Two-part tariffs

50. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. Which of the following is a barrier to entry?
A) control of scarce resources
B) economies of scale
C) government-created barriers such as patents and copyrights
D) all of the above

51. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. Which of the following is a barrier to entry?
A) control of scarce resources
B) economies of scale
C) government-created barriers such as patents and copyrights
D) all of the above

52. H I N T
The Monopolist’s Profit-Maximizing Output and Price

53. D E F I N I T I O N S
Producers in a perfectly competitive market face horizontal demand curves, and so price and marginal revenue are equal.
The ability of a monopolist to raise its price above the competitive level by reducing output is known as market power.
A producer with market power, such as a monopolist, faces a downward-sloping demand curve.

54. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. After the first unit sold, the marginal revenue a monopolist receives from selling one more unit of a good is less than the price at which that unit is sold, because of:
A) diminishing marginal returns.
B) increasing marginal cost.
C) a downward-sloping demand curve
D) all of the above.

55. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. After the first unit sold, the marginal revenue a monopolist receives from selling one more unit of a good is less than the price at which that unit is sold, because of:
A) diminishing marginal returns.
B) increasing marginal cost.
C) a downward-sloping demand curve
D) all of the above.

56. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. Compared to a perfectly competitive industry, a monopolist:
A) produces a large quantity.
B) charges a higher price.
C) increases consumer surplus.
D) does all of the above.

57. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. Compared to a perfectly competitive industry, a monopolist:
A) produces a large quantity.
B) charges a higher price.
C) increases consumer surplus.
D) does all of the above.

58. H I N T
Regulated and Unregulated Natural Monopoly

59. D E F I N I T I O N S
A natural monopoly exists when economies of scale provide a large cost advantage to having all of an industry’s output produced by a single firm.
In the United States price regulation has been used to limit the maximum price the monopoly firm can charge for its service. Such a price ceiling imposed on a monopolist does not create shortages if it is not set too low.

60. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. A natural monopoly is one that:
A) monopolizes a natural resource such as a mineral spring.
B) is based on control of something occurring in nature (such as diamonds).
C) has economies of scale over the entire relevant range of output.
D) typically has low fixed costs, making it easy and “natural” for it to shut out competitors.

61. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. A natural monopoly is one that:
A) monopolizes a natural resource such as a mineral spring.
B) is based on control of something occurring in nature (such as diamonds).
C) has economies of scale over the entire relevant range of output.
D) typically has low fixed costs, making it easy and “natural” for it to shut out competitors.

62. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. One government policy for dealing with a natural monopoly is to:
A) impose a price floor to eliminate the deadweight loss.
B) impose a price ceiling to eliminate any economic profit.
C) break it up into smaller firms.
D) do all of the above.

63. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. One government policy for dealing with a natural monopoly is to:
A) impose a price floor to eliminate the deadweight loss.
B) impose a price ceiling to eliminate any economic profit.
C) break it up into smaller firms.
D) do all of the above.

64. H I N T
Price Discrimination

65. D E F I N I T I O N S
Many firms with market power engage in price discrimination.
Price discrimination is profitable when consumers are different in their sensitivity to the price (price elasticity of demand).
A firm would like to charge high prices to consumers willing to pay them (those with a low price elasticity of demand) and lower prices to those with a high price elasticity of demand).

66. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. The main reason a monopoly engages in price discrimination is that:
A) it wants to discriminate against a particular ethnic group.
B) doing so increases its profits.
C) it wants to discourage potential competitors.
D) by charging a lower price to some people, it may succeed in discouraging efforts to regulate it.

67. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
4. The main reason a monopoly engages in price discrimination is that:
A) it wants to discriminate against a particular ethnic group.
B) doing so increases its profits.
C) it wants to discourage potential competitors.
D) by charging a lower price to some people, it may succeed in discouraging efforts to regulate it.

68. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. Suppose a monopoly can separate its customers into two groups. If the monopoly practices price discrimination, it will charge the lower price to the group with:
A) the higher price elasticity of demand.
B) the lower price elasticity of demand.
C) the fewer close substitutes.
D) The answer cannot be determined with the information given.

69. T E S T Y O U R U N D E R S T A N D I N G
5. Suppose a monopoly can separate its customers into two groups. If the monopoly practices price discrimination, it will charge the lower price to the group with:
A) the higher price elasticity of demand.
B) the lower price elasticity of demand.
C) the fewer close substitutes.
D) The answer cannot be determined with the information given.