1. Control Confidence Goal Setting, Imagery, self talk
Sport Scotland CPD
Control
Confidence
Goal Setting, Imagery, self talk

2. What emotions are most often displayed by:
Control
What emotions are most often displayed by:
Athletes?
Coaches?
Significant others?

3. Emotions Can impact on performance
Consideration of two aspects – coach and athlete displays of emotion
Coach:
Do you consider how your own emotions show around your athletes?
Do you have any dominant emotions that you express?

4. Athlete Emotions Anxiety a common and debilitative emotion
Linked with increases in physiological arousal
Athletes need to be able to control arousal:
Increasing arousal (i.e., psyching up)
Decreasing (i.e., increased pressure leading to anxiety and nervousness)

5. Coping – Social Support
Support from others can help athletes cope in sport
Social support has 4 dimensions:
Emotional support - being there for comfort and security
Esteem support – bolstering person’s sense of competence of self-belief
Informational support – providing advice or guidance
Tangible support – concrete instrumental assistance
Matching support type to needs of athlete at that time important
Important that support does not undermine autonomy, competence and relatedness!

6. Pep Talks Guidelines for a coach’s successful pregame talk
Give them a plan.
Make them believe they can win.
Do not lie.
Be yourself.
Use humor.

7. “Getting the Butterflies to Fly in Formation”
Is arousal/anxiety debilitative or facilitative?
Helping athletes understand arousal and its impact is important
Regular reviews of performances
Controlling strategies:
Relaxation techniques (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation)
Imagery
Self talk

8. What Is Coping?
Coping is a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Researchers differentiate between two types of coping: Problem-focused and emotion focused coping.

9. Coping Categories
Problem-focused coping: Efforts to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (e.g., time management, problem solving)
Emotion-focused coping: Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (e.g., through relaxation, mediation).
(continued)

10. Coping Categories Major problem-focused categories
Information gathering
Precompetition and competition plans
Goal setting
Time management skills
Problem solving
(continued)

11. Coping Categories Major problem-focused categories Increasing effort
Self-talk
Adhering to injury rehabilitation program
(continued)

12. Coping Categories Major emotion-focused categories Meditation
Relaxation
Wishful thinking
Reappraisal
Self-blame, mental and behavioral withdrawal
Cognitive efforts to change the meaning (but not the actual problem or environment) of the situation

13. Coping in Sport Coping strategies frequently used by athletes
Task focus
Rational thinking and self-talk
Positive focus and orientation
Social support
Mental preparation and anxiety management
Time management
Training hard and smart

14. Resiliency: Bouncing Back from Adversity
Mental toughness and personal resources (e.g., determination, competitiveness, commitment) are keys for resilient performers to cope with adversity.
Sociocultural influences such as social support (or lack of it) were seen as critical to being resilient. 14

15. Coping in Sport
Gender, age, and pubertal status can influence both the type of coping strategy employed and its perceived effectiveness.
Coping appears to be situation specific.
There are great individual differences in coping strategies, and each athlete has to find what works best for him or her in specific situations.

16. Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Self-statement modification: Change negative to positive statements.
Imagery: Cope with negative emotions or use positive emotions.
(continued)

17. Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Socratic dialogue
Thought-provoking questions are asked so athletes can reevaluate their self-defeating thoughts.
Corrective experiences
Athlete makes a conscious decision to engage in the behavior that is of concern, which can reduce anxiety and correct past mistakes.
(continued)

18. Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Vicarious learning:
Modeling appropriate behaviors makes it more likely that behavior will be produced.
Self-analysis:
Monitor emotions in sport and thus increase self-awareness.

19. Beyond Anxiety: Coping with Emotions
Storytelling, metaphors, and poetry:
Literary techniques encourage athletes to consider alternative ways of viewing and dealing with the situation (e.g., quotes or stories from sport stars).
Reframing:
Perspective taking involves viewing an important competition as just another game.

20. Keys to Generalizing Coping Strategies
Recognition of stimulus generality:
Understand that certain coping skills transfer to other life situations.
Broad application of coping skills:
Some skills are likely to generalize to non-sport situations, such as stress inoculation training and progressive relaxation.
(continued)

21. Keys to Generalizing Coping Strategies
Personal significance of coping application:
Coping skills that are important to an individual will typically transfer to other situations.
Internal locus of control of coping skill:
Coping skills become more transferable when an athlete claims ownership of the skill.
Learned resourcefulness:
Resourceful individuals realize that coping skills can apply to different aspects of life.

22. On-Site Relaxation Tips
Smile when you feel tension coming on.
Have fun—enjoy the situation.
Set up stressful situations in practice.
Slow down; take your time.
Stay focused on the present.
Come prepared with a good game plan.

23. Signs of Underarousal Moving slowly, not getting set
Mind wandering, being easily distracted
Lack of concern about how one will perform
Lack of anticipation or enthusiasm
Heavy feeling in legs, no bounce

24. Arousal-Inducing Techniques
The goal is to get athletes at an optimal level of arousal.
Often things such as pep talks and motivational speeches can over-arouse athletes.
If arousal is to be raised, it should be done in a deliberate fashion with awareness of optimal arousal states.
(continued)

25. Arousal-Inducing Techniques (continued)
Increase breathing rate.
Act energized.
Use mood words and positive statements.
Listen to music.
Use energizing imagery.
Complete a pre-competition workout.

26. “Flow”
When experience is just right, athlete can have psychological experience which both results in high performance and personal ecstasy.
9 defining characteristics of flow:
Challenge/skill balance
Merging of action and awareness (sense of automaticity and spontaneity)
Goals are clearly defined
Clear, unambiguous feedback
Total concentration on the skill being performed
Sense of being in control without trying to be in control
Loss of self-awareness
Loss of time awareness
Autotelic experience (end result of all the above)

27. “Flow” Facilitative of flow: Debilitative of flow:
Development of positive mental attitude
Positive precompetitive affect
Positive competitive affect
Maintaining appropriate attentional focus
Physical readiness
Unity with team mates and/or coach
Debilitative of flow:
Experience physical problems and mistakes
Inability to maintain appropriate attentional focus
Negative mental attitude
Lack of audience response

28. What does a confident person look like?
Confidence
What does a confident person look like?
List these on the flip chart and refer to later during ‘sources of sport confidence’

29. Confidence Self-confidence definition: State-like and trait-like
“the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour” (Wienberg & Gould, 2011)
State-like and trait-like
Confidence can change depending on the proximity to certain events
Some people more predisposed to confidence
Self-fulfilling prophecy
If you think something will go wrong it will
Example of overcoming this – Roger Bannister breaking the 4 minute mile

30. Sources of Confidence Different types of sport-confidence:
Confidence about ability to execute physical skills
Confidence about one’s ability to use psychological skills
Confidence to use perceptual skills (e.g. Decision making)
Confidence in one’s level of physical fitness
Confidence in one’s learning potential
Where does this confidence come from?

31. Where Does My Confidence Come From?
Type of Confidence
Sources
Fitness
Training (improvements)
Warm up and cool down routines
Proper Equipment
Appropriate Rest
Technique
Training
Coach feedback
Previous performances
Equipment
Recommendations – coaches and other athletes
Improvements in performance
Comfort

32. How Would I Rate My Confidence, and Why?
Type
Sources
Rating (1-10)
Reasons
Fitness
Training (improvements)
Warm up and cool down routines
Proper Equipment
Appropriate Rest 6
Recent injury
No set routines during training
Not enough training
Technique
Training
Coach feedback
Previous performances 7
Performances improving
Positive feedback from coach
Always room for improvement
Equipment
Recommendations – coaches and other athletes
Improvements in performance
Comfort 9
Improvements in performance since changing equipment
Recommended by coach and colleagues
Equipment feels great to run in!

33. What Can I Do To Improve My Confidence?
Type
Sources
Rating (1-10)
Reasons
What Can I Do?
Fitness
Training (improvements)
Warm up and cool down routines
Proper Equipment
Appropriate Rest 6
Recent injury
No set routines during training
Not enough training
See Physiotherapist about injury
Plan routines for warming up and cooling down, and use in training
Set training plan for coming months (goal setting)
Technique
Training
Coach feedback
Previous performances 7
Performances improving
Positive feedback from coach
Always room for improvement
Increased training
Get more coach feedback – ask more questions
Review previous performances
Equipment
Recommendations – coaches and other athletes
Improvements in performance
Comfort 9
Improvements in performance since changing equipment
Recommended by coach and colleagues
Equipment feels great to run in!
Maintain equipment as best as possible
Continue enjoying equipment
Keep up to date with possible new equipment

34. Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977)
Situation-specific form of self-confidence
Belief in one’s ability to perform a specific task
Underlying assumptions
If someone has required ability and sufficient motivation, defining aspect of performance is self-efficacy
High self effacious athletes tend to persevere, particularly under tough conditions
Self-efficacy is task-specific, but can generalise to other similar skills or situations
Self-efficacy is linked to goal setting – those who have high self efficacy tend to set more challenging goals

35. Sources of Self Efficacy
Athletic Performance
Efficacy Expectations
Performance Accomplishments
Vicarious Experience
Verbal Persuasion
Imaginal Experiences
Physiological States
Emotional States
Physiological states – influence self efficacy when seen as either facilitative or debilitative
Emotional states – emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety) can influence efficacy feelings

36. Psychological Skills

37. “A goal set properly is halfway reached” Abraham Lincoln
Goal Setting
“A goal set properly is halfway reached”
Abraham Lincoln

38. Goal Setting
“...success and failure are not concrete events, they are psychological states consequent on perception of reaching or not reaching goals...” (Maehr & Nichols, 1980)

39. Goal Setting In your groups: Define goal setting and goals
List 5 different goals for the next year that your athletes have set

40. What are goals? “What and individual is trying to accomplish”
“ The object or aim of an action”
Goals motivate individuals to take action by:
Focussing attention
Increasing effort and intensity
Prompting development of new problem solving strategies
Encouraging persistence in the face of failure

41. What is goal setting?
Theory of motivation that energises athletes to become more productive and effective

42. Objective vs. Subjective Goals
Objective goals:
Focus on achieving something within a certain time
E.g., reaching a certain weight in a certain amount of time
Subjective goals:
General statements of intent
E.g., “I want to do well”

43. I want to win this tennis match
I will keep my arms straight during my handstand
I want to run this 100m sprint in 12.9s
I want to make this hole in 3 shots
I want to beat this boxer
I want to keep my elbow high through the stroke
I want to score a hatrick
I want the club to follow through after the shot
I want to win this marathon
Outcome – 1, 5, 9
Performance – 3,4,7
Process – 2, 6, 8

44. 3 Types of Objective Goals (Kingston & Hardy, 1997)
Outcome goals
Focus on outcome of events
Usually involve comparisons with others
Performance goals
End product of performance
Independent of others
Process goals
Specific behaviours exhibited during performance
Skill and technique related

45. Which Goal Type is Better?
Outcome goals:
May increase motivation away from competition
Can increase anxiety just before, or during, competition
Performance and process goals
Easier to adjust than outcome goals
Depend less on performance of others

46. Multiple Goal Strategy
Focus on winning
Outcome Goals:
Focus on skill achievement
Performance Goals:
Focus on skill technique
Process Goals:

47. Why Does Goal Setting Work?
Four basic ways goal setting influences performance (Locke et al, 1981)
Directed attention
Focuses athlete attention on task
Effort mobilisation
Once attention is directed, athlete knows where to place their effort
Persistence
Goal setting helps athletes direct their effort over long periods of time
Development of new learning strategies
Setting new goals allows athlete to develop new methods of achieving these

48. Effective Goal Setting
Make goals specific and measurable
Set moderately difficult, but realistic, goals
Set long and short term goals
Write down goals and monitor progress regularly

49. Effective Goal Setting
Use a mix of process, performance and outcome goals
Use short-range goals to achieve long-range goals
Set practice as well as competition goals
Make sure goals are internalised

50. SMART goals
Specific
Measurable
Action-orientated
Realistic
Timely

51. SMARTER Goals Specific Measurable Action-orientated Realistic Timely
Elastic
Repeatable

52. Goal Setting Pitfalls Poorly written goal statements
i.e., not using SMART goals
Failure to develop a goal-attainment strategy
Failure to follow goal-attainment strategy
Setting too many goals too soon
Failure to adjust goals
Due to injury especially

53. Usefulness of Goal Setting
Motivation:
Athlete given ownership over training – AUTONOMY
Athlete achieves goals – COMPETENCE
Athlete sets goals with team mates/coach – RELATEDNESS
Confidence:
Athlete achieves goals – performance accomplishment
Flow
Clear goals – facilitative of flow
Control & concentration
Ability to refocus on task – coping mechanism

54. Imagery

55. Imagery What is imagery?
Image can be created in the mind in the absence of any external stimuli
Imagery involves one or all of the senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, olfactory
Imagery involves moods and emotions

56. Why does imagery work? Psycho neuromuscular Theory
Imagery results in subliminal neuromuscular patterns identical to patterns used during actual movement
Neuromuscular system “practices” movement
Research has shown increased electrical activity in passive muscles associated with imagery (Jowdy & Harris, 1990; Slade et al, 2002; Smith & Collins, 2004)
Most plausible explanation of why imagery facilitates physical performance and learning (Cox, 2007)

57. Why does imagery work? Symbolic learning theory:
Imagery works because the individual plans their actions in advance
Attention and arousal set theory:
Imagery improves performance in 2 ways:
Imagery may help athlete attend to task at hand (cognitive)
Imagery may help athlete adjust arousal level for optimal performance (physiological)

58. Imagery Perspective Internal vs. external perspective
Internal perspective
Athlete imagines executing skill from within their own body
Very natural, as we see the world this way
External perspective
Athlete imagining self from outside their body – like watching a video of self
Less natural, but offers good opportunity to observe technique and form

59. Imagery Modality Visual imagery Kinaesthetic Imagery
Related to the visual processing of information
“Seeing movement”
Kinaesthetic Imagery
Refers to sensory information from receptors throughout body
Information about body-part location and movement, objects in contact with body, movement of muscles, joints and tendons (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004)
“Feeling movement”

60. Perspective and Modality
Cox (1998) suggests:
“internal imagery is considered to be primarily kinaesthetic in nature, as opposed to visual” (p176)
“external imagery is considered to be primarily visual in nature” (p176)
Callow and Hardy (2004)
Internal imagery considered superior to external due to association with kinaesthetic imagery

61. Perspective and Modality
Callow and Hardy (2004)
Used VMIQ (Isaac et al, 1986) to measure internal/external imagery
Used MIQ (Hall et al, 1985) to measure visual/kinaesthetic imagery
Study 1
Significant correlation between imagery perspective and imagery modality
Study 2
External imagery significantly correlated with kinaesthetic imagery, internal was not!
Conclusion:
External imagery has a stronger association with kinaesthetic imagery for tasks where form is important

62. Perspective and Modality
Athletes can form kinaesthetic imagery equally well from both internal and external perspectives (Gates et al, 2003; Hardy & Callow, 1999)
Advanced performers capable of switching between perspectives, and speed of change may lead to athletes experiencing both perspectives at once (Holmes & Collins, 2001)
New focus of research
External imagery perspective angle (Roberts et al, 2009)

63. Models of Imagery Paivio’s Two-Dimensional Model of Imagery (1985)
Imagery has both cognitive and motivational functions
5 independent types of imagery:
Motivational Specific (MS) – athlete imagines self in specific sport setting that is highly motivating
Motivational General – Mastery (MG-M) – athlete imagines self exhibiting ability to remain focussed
Motivational General – Arousal (MG-A) – athlete imagines self exhibiting ability to control anxiety
Cognitive Specific (CS) – athlete imagines self correctly executing specific skills
Cognitive General (CG) – athlete imagines self correctly executing strategies and game plans

64. Models of Imagery Four Ws Where and When? What?
Most imagery takes place during training and competition (Munroe et al, 2000)
Imagery used both in-season and during off-season, (Cummings and Hall, 2002)
What?
Smith and Holmes (2004) contrasted
Written script of successful putting
Watching video of self successfully putting
Hearing ball dropping into hole
Control condition
Found – watching self most effective

65. Models of Imagery Four Ws What (cont)
Direction of imagery – positive vs. negative
Nordin & Cumming (2005) – debilitative imagery causes decrease in self-efficacy and performance
Imagery and motivation
Wilson et al. (2003) – exercisers motivated for external rewards do not use imagery for improving technique, improving appearance or increasing energy
Imagery and goal perspective
Harwood et al (2003) – athletes high on task and ego orientation exhibit highest imagery use for 5 types of imagery

66. Models of Imagery Four Ws What (cont) Imagery speed
Calmels and Fournier (2001) – imaged gymnastics routines shorter than actual practiced routines
Reed (2002) – diver imagery speeds:
Intermediate divers > novice divers > elite divers
McCann (2009) – slow motion/real time/fast motion
No impact on confidence or affect
Slow motion lead to better timing of performance

67. Models of Imagery Four Ws Why?
Improving performance (Nordin & Cumming, 2005)
Also shown to improve:
Anxiety control, confidence and motivation amongst elite rugby players (Evans et al, 2004)
Anxiety control and self-efficacy of novice rock climbers (Jones et al, 2002)
Confidence of high-level badminton players (Callow et al, 2001)
Attention abilities of softball players (Calmels et al, 2004)
Cyclical relationship – more confident individuals use imagery more (Abma et al, 2002)

68. Uses of Imagery Skill learning and practice: Tactical and game skills
Skill acquisition, skill practice, error detection and correction
Tactical and game skills
Strategy development, strategy learning, strategy practice, problem solving
Competition and performance
Familiarisation of location, mental warm-up, pre-performance routine, preview, review

69. Uses of Imagery Psychological skills Coping with injury
Arousal and anxiety control, improving concentration and attention
Increasing self-awareness, building confidence and self-efficacy
Increasing motivation, developing interpersonal skills
Coping with injury
Coping with pain and injury, dealing with long term injury, recovering from injury

70. Imagery Interventions
PETTLEP (Holmes & Collins, 2001)
Physical nature of task – what imagery is for
Environment – use of stimulus materials that mimic real environment
Task – imagery represents the nature of skill to be performed and reflects level of imager
Timing – imagery being performed in real time
Learning – imagery content reviewed and revised as new skills are learned
Emotion – necessity for inclusion of emotional component to imagery
Perspective – prioritises internal, but external used when appropriate

71. Imagery Interventions
Key components (Morris et al, 2005)
Vivid and controllable
Involve all senses
Realism
Positive performance and outcome focus
Base images on memories
Use stimulus and response propositions
Stimulus propositions – references to the environment, equipment, performance actions (e.g. tempo), performance setting
Response propositions – responses to the environment, e.g. heart / breathing rate, muscular fatigue, sweating, etc

72. Developing an Imagery Script

73. Usefulness of Imagery Motivation Confidence Concentration and control
Imagery used to preview/review performance – competence
Athlete responsible for image – autonomy
Confidence
Athlete imagining perfect performance – performance accomplishment
Athlete ‘seeing’ others – vicarious experience
Imaginal experiences
Concentration and control
Imagery used as pre-performance routine – athlete getting into zone, or increasing arousal
Psychological tool for use during play – maintaining or regaining focus

74. Motivational vs. Instructional
Self Talk
Internal vs. External
Motivational vs. Instructional
Internal
Talking to yourself in your own head
People do it all the time!
External
Speaking out loud to yourself
E.g. Andy Murray
Motivational
Come on!!
Instructional
To do with technique
Dealing with distractions – focus!