1. Utilitarianism Author: John Waters
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2. A Concise Historical Overview
Socrates says... click on any philosopher for more information
David
Hume
( CE)
G.E.
Moore
( )
Jeremy
Bentham
( CE)
R.M.
Hare
( CE)
John Stuart
Mill
( CE )
Peter
Singer
( )

3. Utilitarianism Historical Background
The Enlightenment
French Revolution
Victorian Britain
Utilitarians
Voltaire
Rousseau
Rejection of metaphysics
“Liberty, Fraternity,
Equality”
Social
Reformers
Socrates says..click on any philosopher for more information

4. What is utilitarianism?
Derives from the latin word `utilis’ meaning useful.
A normative, consequential morality.
Good is whatever produces beneficial consequences.
Utilitarianism has no intrinsic goods (Good irrespective of the consequences)
Utilitarianism is instrumental
(The results justify the means)
Principle of utility

5. The Principle of Utility
Pleasure
Pain
The Principle of Utility
The good is that which will bring about the greatest sum of pleasure, or the least sum of pain, for the greatest number

6. Jeremy Bentham
Principle of Utility
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.”
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
Foundation for the Principle of Utility
is Bentham’s Psychological hedonism:
Pleasure and pain determine how people act.

7. Jeremy Bentham: Reductive Empiricist
Bentham was a reductive empiricist
Principle of utility will replace metaphysical beliefs
According to Bentham talk of abstract `inalienable rights’ was “nonsense on stilts.”
Only the principle of utility offers an understanding of rights based on concrete, observable verification

8. Scientific and Ethical Revolution
The principle of utility offers an understanding of rights based on concrete, observable verification
Scientific and Ethical Revolution B E N T H A M N E W T O D A R W I N
Newton’s laws of science explained how the world is governed by universal laws of nature which causally determine action.
Bentham reasoned
that ethics was a
science; where `good’ could be scientifically proven according to the principle of utility, felicific calculus.
Darwin challenged the fundamentalist, literal, understanding
of the Genesis creation story with his scientific theory of evolution, natural selection.

9. All types of pleasure and pain can be measured on the same scale.
Pleasures can be compared quantitatively because there is no qualitative difference between them
Bentham once said that "quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin [a simple child's game] is as good as poetry".
What is good and bad for each person (i.e. what brings them pleasure or pain) is a matter for each person to decide by following the Felicific Calculus

10. Bentham’s Felicific Calculus
Pleasure can be `scientifically’ calculated according to the
following 7 criteria of the Felicific Calculus
1. DURATION
How long will it last?
2. INTENSITY
How intense is it?
3. PROPINQUITY
How near or remote?
4. EXTENT
How widely it covers
5. CERTAINTY
How probable is it?
6. PURITY
How free from pain is it?
7. FECUNDITY
Lead to further pleasure?

11. Bentham’s Mnemonic Jingle for his Felicific Calculus
A little ditty to remember the Felicific Calculus
Intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure – Such marks in pleasures and in pain endure. Such pleasures seek if private be thy end: If it be public, wide let them extend Such pains avoid, whichever be thy view: If pains must come, let them extend few.

12. Bentham’s Felicific Calculus
The Felicific Calculus
Democratic and Egalitarian
“Everybody is to
count for one, and nobody for more than one.”
“No one person’s pleasure is greater
than another’s”
In keeping with Enlightenment thinking the Felicific Calculus was a rational and scientific way to measure pleasure. Bentham claimed that goodness could be empirically proven.

13. Bentham’s Felicific Calculus
When answering an examination question on utilitarianism try and avoid simply listing the felicific calculus – as this only demonstrates knowledge (something which lower grade students can achieve).
Rather, select a particular feature of the Felicific calculus, perhaps propinquity, and show how it might be difficult to apply in practice e.g. Is the pleasure near or remote in terms of space (geographically close) or time – may have an impact in years to come.
Apply to a national or international example to illustrate further understanding and evaluation: America withdrawing from the Kyoto agreement; Bush claiming “the American way of life is non-negotiable.” Can the felicific calculus overcome such political short-termism?

14. Jeremy Bentham Counter-cultural Pioneer of Social Reform
Penal Reform
Animal Rights
Click on either of the
above boxes for further
information

15. Benefits of Utilitarianism

16. Appeals to Human Nature
Human beings share a common interest in:
Benevolence and sympathy (David Hume)
Pleasure and Happiness (Bentham and Mill)
(3) Pleasure, Friendship, Aesthetic Appreciation (G.E. Moore)
(4) People’s Welfare (R.M. Hare)
(5) People’s Preferences (Peter Singer)
G.E. Moore
David Hume
Jeremy Bentham
R.M. Hare
Peter Singer
J.S. Mill

17. Utilitarianism: Fair, Objective and Democratic
Bentham’s felicific calculus claims that: “Everybody is to count for one, and nobody for more than one. No one person’s pleasure is greater than another’s.”
In a radical way utilitarianism challenges elitism and an aristocratic system that offers privilege to the select few at the expense of the majority. e.g. French Revolution: `Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.’
In the spirit of Marxism democracy is giving the proletariat rewards for their labour and power to determine their future.

18. Appropriate Ethic for a Secular and Scientific Age
In a Post Enlightenment world, with the challenge to metaphysical and theistic foundations, utilitarianism has a high regard for individual autonomy.
Hume Voltaire
Although the felicific calculus was not the resounding success that Bentham may have wished, the importance of the quality of people’s lives, here and now, is something which governments take seriously.
Peter Singer’s
Preference Utilitarianism recognises the importance of respecting people’s desires and inclinations when assessing moral dilemmas.

19. Quality of Human Life or Sanctity of Human Life?
Peter Singer Pope John Paul II
Personhood
Sentience
Rational
Self-conscious
Communicate
Establish
Relationships
Preference
Utilitarianism
replaces sanctity
of human life
with the criteria
for personhood
Due to advances
in scientific technology
it is possible to
maintain life even
when it is of low
quality e.g. life support
Machines, Motor
Neurone Disease
In a world of limited resources is it
more sensible to respect a patient’s wish
to die, voluntary euthanasia? (And so reduce
needless suffering and equally redistribute funds otherwise
spent keeping a terminally ill patient alive with a low quality of life.)

20. Utilitarianism Suitable for Government
Bentham and Mill’s political
reforms had significant
impacts on public policy
e.g. Penal reform, Greater
Equality for women,
Animal Rights
Jeremy Bentham
J.S. Mill
Government policy has an interest in promoting the quality of life for its electorate e.g Education, Health care, Law and order.
Tony Blair

21. Utilitarianism has Some Common Ground With Christian Ethics
Bentham’s Principle of Utility has been compared to Jesus’ Golden Rule, “Love your neighbour as yourself” or “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
The rationale behind Christian teaching of redemption may be understood in a utilitarian manner: the vicarious suffering by Jesus on the cross to redeem humanity is self-sacrificial for the greater good of the greater number.
Utilitarianism upholds the message of a benevolent God showing interest for the well-being of human beings; but rejects belief in a metaphysical God!

22. Problems of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

23. Problem of Utilitarianism: Commits the Naturalistic Fallacy
“Cannot deduce an OUGHT from an IS” (G.E. Moore)
Cannot move from FACT to VALUES
Cannot move from EPISTEMOLOGY (knowledge) to ETHICS
(G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica)

24. Problem of Utilitarianism: Commits the Naturalistic Fallacy
From the mere statement of psychological fact that people actually desire happiness for its own sake
one cannot deduce the evaluative conclusion that pleasure is desirable, i.e. that it ought to be desired.
People may desire something that they ought not to desire, something which is not really desirable.
e.g People may desire to take hard drugs as it produces pleasure. But is taking hard drugs good?

25. The Felicific Calculus Is Too Impractical
When making decisions in the heat of the moment, lacking reflection, it is not practical to apply the felicific calculus to moral dilemmas.
Adding up `pleasure units’ is a dubious exercise and is difficult to measure accurately.
The whole idea of assessing different varieties and intensities of pleasures is too subjective.

26. The Felicific Calculus Too Impractical? J.S. Mill’s response
J.S. Mill argued that instead of the felicific calculus people should come up with general principles which over the passage of time have promoted the greatest happiness.
By following such principles and rules individual judgements are supported by past events and so are less pressurised and less subjective in their moral judgements.
This development is a major reason why some have labelled Mill a `rule`utilitarian – as he advocated following such rules as opposed to continually using the felicific calculus or even his own Greatest Happiness Principle.

27. Principle Of Utility May Undermine Freedom
In Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World a utopian society is projected where people are genetically engineered with differing levels of IQ: Alphas to Epsilons (A-E)
Recent
International Example
In 1989 the Chinese government suppressed the student uprising in Tiananmen Square, claiming the State, not the educated students, knew what was in people’s best interest. Giving students freedom to determine their future was not deemed acceptable.
Citizens receive state indoctrination and soma drugs to promote a feeling of happiness.
However, the price of this inauthentic happiness is the encroachment upon personal freedom.

28. “I’m claiming the right to be unhappy” (John, The Savage, Brave New World)
Aldous Huxley
It is helpful to
illustrate
answers with
examples from
literature.
In Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, John, the Savage, rejects a life of artificial drug (soma) induced happiness.
When questioned by the Controller John asserts his right to be unhappy. John understands that a life of depth and meaning is one which embraces and learns from hardship and sorrow.
Equally important is lateral thinking, here with John Hick’s theodicy. Hick asserts that
`Virtues are
better hard
won than
ready made’.
A life which pursues a drug induced happiness is one which misses the richness that comes from experiencing pain and sacrifice.

29. Living in a Fool’s Paradise
Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Illych is a story of how many people live a life of deception – fooling themselves into believing that their lives are happy by finding meaning in superficial pleasures.
Yet on his death-bed Ivan Illych, a once wealthy lawyer who is struck down by a terminal illness, realises people only really liked him for the material benefits he was able to offer them. He realises that he has lived a life where superficial pleasures fooled him into thinking he was happy, when in fact his life lacked depth & meaning.
A life filled with the instant gratification of the latest designer label is not a life of fufilment.

30. Utilitarian’s Universal Altruism Lacks Justification
Each person desires his / her own happiness. ?
Therefore each person ought to aim for his or her own happiness.
This jump from
Egotistical
Hedonism to
include the
welfare of others
lacks support.
Therefore everyone ought to aim at the happiness of everyone

31. Society is a collection of
Egoism to Altruism
Sentiment of Sympathy
Philosopher
But Problem!
People are
Too egotistical
Innate within human beings is an elementary feeling for the happiness of humanity and a dislike of seeing them in misery.
Marx argues that in a
Capitalist society the
competition for limited
resources means the
bourgeois will
seek to exploit the
proletariat.
David Hume
Economic growth should be pursued as a means of bettering conditions for all. Smith claimed even economic inequality caused greater wealth for all.
Soon after being
elected President
George Bush withdrew
America from the Kyoto
agreement, claiming
“The American way of
life is non-negotiable.”
Adam Smith
Society is a collection of
individuals who work together for the common good.

32. People Are Separate And Unique
Professor Simon Blackburn has argued that “Utilitarianism does not take seriously the separateness of persons – the idea being that it subordinates the rights of the individual to solidarity with the general welfare.” (Being Good, p.92)
e.g. In World War II the right of the pacifist Methodist minister, Lord Donald Soper, to speak out against the war was denied as it was thought his words would undermine the war effort and was detrimental to the general welfare of the country.

33. Will of the Majority Does Not Always Make for Good Law
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication
Strange as it may seem the will of the majority does not always make for good law.
For example, the majority of the UK public are in favour of legalising voluntary euthanasia. (2001: 82% Opinion Poll)
There is a danger that people follow their desires and inclinations as opposed to thinking through the implications of their decisions. e.g. How might the ethos of society change, affecting weak and vulnerable people, such as the elderly?

34. Will of the Majority Does Not Always Make for Good Law
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication
Interestingly Mill was all too aware of this criticism of
Bentham’s utilitarianism.
In On Liberty Mill drew an important distinction between public and private acts.
He famously remarked, “Your freedom to punch me ends where my nose begins.”
Any law which has a serious detrimental effect on the qualitative well being of others is wrong.

35. Not simply the amount of pleasure produced But how that pleasure is distributed
Unlike Bentham, W.D. Ross was concerned
that utilitarianism could ignore justice.
Justice is not concerned simply with the
amount of pleasure produced.
But, rather how and on what basis
that pleasure is distributed.
Do people or groups
deserve to receive pleasure?
Bentham
W.D. Ross

36. Utilitarianism: Counter-intuitive
As an intuitionist W.D. Ross rejected
utilitarianism on the grounds that it
ignores intrinsic goods that are counter,
or contrary, to our intuitive, innate, sense of right and wrong.
Even if it could be shown that happiness
was greatest by lying to people there
is something simply wrong about
lying and deception which would
make people wish to reject such an ethic.
W.D. Ross

37. Utilitarianism: Lack of Intrinsic Goods
Utilitarianism is a consequential morality and so lacks intrinsic goods, such as trust, honesty and dignity. This creates an ethos of uncertainty where people are never really sure if they are valued.
e.g
YUPPIES (Young Urban Professional People)
In the early 1980s many middle-aged businessmen, who had shown great loyalty accruing high profits for their companies were sacked over-night; to be replaced by YUPPIES. YUPPIES were considered to be of greater immediate use to the company, being younger and so cheaper in the short run.

38. Utilitarianism requires a non-utilitarian framework in order to work
Professor Alasdair MacIntyre argues that utilitarianism is effective as an ethical theory only when it operates within a non-utilitarian framework, where intrinsic, deontological values enable people to flourish.
e.g. Happiness may be promoted in a society that upholds intrinsic values of justice, liberty and honesty.
Alasdair MacIntyre

39. Application of Utilitarianism To Moral Issues
Case Studies
Application of Utilitarianism
To Moral Issues

40. Should I.V.F Be Used To Help Infertile Couples?
The Roman Catholic church condemns the use of I.V.F as being contrary to the sanctity of human life principle and teaching of natural law.
Lord Robert Winston and Baroness Warnock support the use of I.V.F. to relieve the suffering of infertile couples.
What would a classical utilitarian think? Give reasons for your view.
Paul VI
Lord Winston
John Paul II
Baroness
Warnock

41. The Survival Lottery (by Professor John Harris)14 6 12 27 22 3
Patients Y and Z will die unless they receive organ transplants – in which case they will live for a further 20 years.
There is a lack of donor organs.
Faced with the prospect of imminent death patients Y and Z propose a `National Survival Lottery’ – where each week a person’s number will be pulled out at random, killed, and their organs donated to help those in need of a transplant – thereby saving a greater number of lives.
Explain a utilitarian response to the suggestion of a National Survival Lottery.
Professor John Harris

42. The Survival Lottery Some further points to consider…14 6 12 27 22 3
Is there a difference between killing and letting die? (Patients Y and Z do not think so!)
Is one’s individuality undermined?
Would the ‘National Survival Lottery’ create a climate of fear, or would people become accustomed to the unlikely probability?
What about those who have brought their illness upon themselves, e.g through heavy smoking, should they benefit equally?
How would a sub-class of people be protected from not being victimised?
Can society take away the intrinsic right to life? Where does its authority lie?
Professor
John Harris

43. Legalise Voluntary Euthanasia?
Public Opinion Polls in the UK show that the majority of people would like to see voluntary euthanasia legalised. e.g. 82% 2001.
The UK is an increasingly secular society where the Quality of Life is considered to be more important than the sanctity of human life.
20% of patients in Intensive Care Units are being treated with no likelihood of survival.
Would a utilitarian agree with the legalisation of voluntary euthanasia?

44. Legalise Voluntary Euthanasia? Some further points to consider…
Would voluntary euthanasia undermine the role of the doctor? (cf. the Hippocratic oath, the medical duty to preserve innocent human life.)
Is the current law of `the principle of double effect’ satisfactory in a secular society?
Consequences of restrictive laws? Will people pursue a policy of illegal euthanasia?
Would legalising voluntary euthanasia pressurise vulnerable members of society? (The Church of England’s concern, On Dying Well 1993)
Is voluntary euthanasia a private, or a public, act? (How does it differ from suicide?)
Hippocrates
Pius XII
Kevorkian
Williams
J.S. Mill

45. Socrates Says Links

46. David Hume was an empiricist, who rejected the authority of the church
and those pertaining to metaphysical foundations, “Take in hand any
volume of divinity or school of metaphysics…and let us ask: Does it
contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No.
Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact
and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames for it can contain
nothing but sophistry and illusion.”
Rather, Hume thought that morality was founded
upon emotions, and in particular feelings of
sympathy with fellow human beings. This is what
Hume means by the term passion, when he says,
“Reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions.”
Utilitarianism develops Hume’s empirical
approach, rejecting God as the author of morality, and expands the notion of sympathy to include the `Greatest pleasure / happiness for the greatest number.’
David Hume ( CE)

47. Jeremy Bentham A Hedonistic Utilitarian A radical empiricist
Psychological Hedonism
Principle of Utility
Felicific Calculus
Morality: could be scientifically proven
Pioneer of social reform
Jeremy Bentham
( CE)

48. John Stuart Mill A Eudaimonistic Utilitarian A Weak Rule utilitarian
Advocated classical liberalism
Greatest Happiness Principle
Quality, not Quantity
Happiness, not pleasure
Pioneer of social reform
John Stuart Mill
( CE )

49. An Intuitionist or an Ideal Utilitarian?
G.E. Moore is famous for his analysis of ethical language in Principia Ethica, 1903, where he famously asserted that: Good is a non-definable property. This led to Moore being labelled an intuitionist, as “We know what`yellow’ is, and can recognise it whenever it is seen, but we cannot actually define it. In the same way we know what `good’ means but cannot define it.” (Ethica, 1903)
However, closer analysis reveals that, “it seems self
evident that our duty is to do what will produce the best effects upon the whole, no matter how bad the effects
upon ourselves may be and no matter how good we ourselves may lose by it.” (Ethica, p.143)
As an Ideal utilitarian Moore suggests that there are
three intrinsic goods: Pleasure, Friendship, Aesthetic
appreciation – and so right actions are those which increase / promotes these in the world for the most people.
G.E. Moore
( )

50. R.M. Hare: Welfare Utilitarian
It is significant that the experiences from being a prisoner of war in Japan during World War II influenced R.M. Hare’s moral philosophy.
Peoples desires and needs for satisfaction are important.
It is possible to intuit what will promote people’s well being.
A whole life perspective should be adopted when making moral judgements.
Principles of integrity and justice are important as they promote welfare.
Critical reflection is important to assess the changing needs of human welfare.
R.M. Hare

51. Peter Singer’s Moral Philosophy: Four Simple Claims?
1. Pain is bad.
2. Most non-human animals feel pain.
3. When taking life we should look not at race, sex or species but at other ethically relevant characteristics of the individual being killed.
4. We are responsible not only for what we do but also for what we could have prevented.
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication
The above may sound simple and appealing. But, think how Singer’s philosophy would change your life?!

52. Peter Singer’s Ethical Earthquake

53. The 5 Old and 5 New Commandments
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication
1. Treat all human life as if it is of equal worth.
2. Never intentionally take innocent life.
3. Never take your own life and try to prevent others from taking theirs
4. Be fruitful and multiply
5. Treat all human life as always more precious than any non-human life.
1. Recognise that all worth of life varies.
2. Take responsibility for the consequences of our decisions.
3. Respect a person’s desire to live or die.
4. Bring children into the world only if they are wanted.
5. Do not discriminate on the basis of species.

54. Personhood Ethically Relevant Characteristics
The criteria for personhood should replace the sanctity of human life
Rational
Self-conscious
(Biographical as opposed to merely biological)
Sentient
Act intentionally
Communicate
Establish relationships
Peter Singer

55. Philosopher Contribution Hu Be Mi Wa Ha Peter Singer’s Application
(Periodic Table)
Peter Singer’s
Application
Contribution
“Reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions.”
Empiricist
Sympathy (feeling) fosters
idea of others, Expanding
Circle. Rejection of theism. Hu
Sentience applies to animals so they have interests and are ethically significant.
“The question is: not can
it reason, can it talk, but
can it suffer.” (Bentham) Be
Maldistribution of wealth!
Superficial pleasures do not outweigh 3rd world suffering
Qualitative differences
between pleasures / pain. Mi
Vindication of the Rights
of Women 1792 –
oppressed group of society
Singer is counter-cultural:
Animal Liberation – global
pioneer of animal rights Wa
Ethical self-interest
requires universalization,
promotes welfare for all.
Individuals find meaning in their lives when they focus on others / larger goals Ha

56. The Enlightenment
18th century
Voltaire Leibniz Newton Hume
The Enlightenment is known as The Age of Reason and was a time when great optimism was expressed in humanity’s intellectual powers.
Rejected theological dogma, with its emphasis on faith and ecclesiastical authority. Placed reason, empiricism and human autonomy over and above metaphysical belief and God..
The
Enlightenment
Utilitarians rejected God as the author of morality, as empirically God’s existence could not be proven, and replaced the authority of the Bible as the source of morality with the principle of utility - as no one could doubt the reality of pleasure and pain.

57. The French Revolution
1789 CE
The political structure of France, where the wealthy noble-people lorded it over the majority of the poor peasants, came to an abrupt end; many of the landed gentry losing their lives at the guillotine.
In 1789 the battle-cry of the French revolution was Rousseau’s “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” reflected the challenge by the masses against the elite aristocracy.
The French
Revolution
Sentiments of sympathy for the well being and happiness of others became a central aim of ethics throughout Europe.
Jean Jacques Rousseau and David Hume
advocated sympathy and benevolence.

58. England in the 1800s was a class-riddled society.
Victorian Britain
England in the 1800s was a class-riddled society.
Charles Dickens, in his novel Hard Times, highlights enforced debtors prisons, exploitation of child labour and the subjugation of women.
Bentham
Wollstonecraft
The pioneers of utilitarianism, Bentham, Wollstoncraft and Mill, campaigned for social change – promoting structures which would enable the majority of people to live fulfilled and happy lives. e.g. Penal and Electoral Reform.
J.S. Mill

59. Penal Reform e.g. abolition of debtors prisons.
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication
e.g. abolition of debtors prisons.
Bentham campaigned for the
reform of the Penal System, based on
Psychological Hedonism
(People respond to pleasure/pain)
Punishment should be sufficient to deter others from offending
but punishment should not cause unnecessary suffering.

60. Edward Chadwick “Man seeks pleasure and flees pain.”
The New Poor Law 1834
In examinations it is helpful to offer a brief example of how Bentham’s utilitarianism changed British law.
Bentham’s felicific calculus was the philosophy behind the Whig government’s Social Reform of the New Poor Law.
Edward Chadwick “Man seeks pleasure and flees pain.”
The New Poor Law (1834) stated that life inside the workhouse must be less eligible (pleasant) than life as an independent labourer. Further, no able bodied man should be able to get relief outside the workhouse.
“Bentham was the father of British innovation both in doctrines and in institutions.” (JS Mill)

61. Bentham: Animal Welfare
“The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been with-holden them but by the hand of tyranny.”
“The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason why a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day be recognised that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate.”
“The question is not `Can they reason?’ `Can they talk?’ But `Can they suffer?’”